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SMITH  Vf  FORMAN^S  FIRST  EDITION. 

ENGLISH  GRAMMAR, 

^         adapted  to  the 
DIFFERE:N'T  classes  of  LEARA'FTRSi 

ITII 

^    AN  APPENDIX, 


t.  /y/  7 


,  CONTAINING 

RULES  AND  OBskiiVATIOiNS, 


CONTAINING 


FOR  ASSISTING  THE  MORE  ADVANODIi  S  PUiJENT.^  tG 
WRITE  WITH  PERSPICUITY  AND  ACCURACY. 


>•»>< 


*  They  who  are  learning-  to  compose  and  an-ang-e  their  sen 
tences  with  accuracy  and  order,  are  learning-,  at  the  same  time, 
to  tliink  with  accuracy  and  order.*  jjlair. 


BY  LIjYDLEY  MURRAY. 


TrOM   the  eighteenth   ENGLISH   EDITION,    ENLARGE.l) 
AND   IMPROVED   BY   THE   AUTHOR. 


JVEW'YORK: 

PRINTED  AND  SOLD  BY  SMITH  &  FORMAN 
195   AND  213,  GREEN-WICH-STREET. 

1810. 


Gi> 


c^y/^^^ 


/^"^ 


h 


INTRODUCTION. 


WHEN  the  number  and  variety  of  English  Gram- 
mar^  already  published,  and  the  ability  with  which  some  of 
them  are  written,  are  considered,  little  can  be  expected 
from  a  new  compilation,  besides  a  careful  selection  of  the 
most  useful  matter,  and  some  degree  of  improvement  in 
the  mode  of  adapting  it  to  the  understanding,  and  the  gra- 
dual progress  of  learners.  In  these  respects  somethings 
perhaps,  may  yet  be  done,  for  the  ease  and  advantage  of 
young  persons. 

In  books  designed  for  the  instruction  of  youth,  there  is 
a  medium  to  be  observed,  between  treating  the  subject  in 
so  extensive  and  minute  a  manner,  as  to  embarrass  and 
confuse  their  minds,  by  offering  too  much  at  once  for  their 
comprehenfciou  ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  conducting  it  by 
such  short  and  general  precepts  and  observations,  as  con- 
vey to  them  no  clear  and  precise  information.  A  d5,si.ri- 
bution  of  the  parts,  which  is  either  defective  or  irregular, 
has  al'SO  a  tendency  to  perplex  tlie  young  understariciin.;, 
and  to  retard  its  knowledge  cf  the  principles  of  li'teiatii!  c. 
A  distinct  general  view,  or  outline,  of  ail  tlic  erisenti.d 
parts  of  the  study  in  wdiich  they  are  engaged  ;  a  giachial 
and  judicious  supply  of  this  outline  ;  and  a  <lue  arrange- 
ment of  the  divisions,  according  to  their  natin-al  order  and 
connexion,  appear  to  bo  among  the  best  means  of  cniight 
ening  the  minds  of  youth,  and  of  facilitating  their  acqulsl  ■ 
tion  of  knowledge.  The  author  of  this  work,  at  the  same 
time  that  he  has  endeavoured  to  avoid  a  plan,  w  !.ich  may 
be  too  concise  or  too  extensive,  defective  in  its  parts  or  ir- 
regular in  their  disposition,  has  studied  to  render  his  ".-.vh- 
ject  sufficiently  easy,  iiitclligible,  and  comprehensive,  lie 
does  not  presume  to  have  completely  attained  these  ob- 
jects. How  far  he  has  succeeded  in  the  .attempt,  ar.d 
wherein  he  has  failed,  nmst  be  referred  to  the  deternuiui.- 
tion  of  the  judicious  and  candid  reader. 

54M38 


IV  INTKODUeTION.    '      ^ 

The/lYicthod  which  he  has  adopted,  of  exhibiting  the  per- 
forniance  in  characters  of  different  sizes,  will,  he  trusts,  be 
conducive  to  that  gradual  and  regular  procedure,  which  is 
so  favourable  to  the  business  of  instruction.  The  more 
important  rules,  definitions,  an^  observations,  and  which 
are  tneref«|fe  the  most  proper  to  be  p omrnitted  to  memoiy, 
are  printed  with  a  larger  type  j  whilst  riiles'an'cl  remarks 
that  are  of  less  consequence,  that  extend  or  diversify  the 
general  idea,  or  that  serve  as  explanations,  are  contained  in 
the  smaller  letter  :  these,  or  the  chief  of  them,  will  be  pe- 
rused by  the  student  to  the  greatest  advantage,  if  postpon- 
ed tiU  the  general  system  be  completed,  The  use  of  notes 
and  observations,  in  the  common  and  detached  manner,  at 
the  bottom  of  the  page,  would  not,  it  is  imagined,  be  so 
iikeiy  to  attracrt  the  perusal  of  youth,  or  admit  of  so  ample 
and  regular  an  illustration,  as  a  continued  and  uniform  or- 
der of  the  several  subjects.  In  adopting  this  mode,  care 
has  been  taken  to  adjust  it  so  that  the  whole  may  be  peru- 
sed in  a  connected  progress,  or  the  part  contained  in  the 
larger  character  read  in  order  by  itself.  Many  of  the  notes 
and  observations  are  intended,  not  only  to  expldn  the  sub- 
jects, and  to  illustrate  them,  by  comparative  views  of  the 
graitimar  of  other  languages,  and  of  the  various  sentiments 
of  English  grammarians  ;  but  also  to  invite  the  ingenious 
student  to  inquiry  and  reflection,  and  to  prompt  to  a  more 
enlarged,  critical,  and  philosophical  research. 

With  respect  to  the  definitions  and  rules,  it  may  not  be 
improper  more  pailicularly  to  observe,  that  in  selecting 
and  forming  them,  it  has  been  the  author's  £uni  to  render 
them  as  exact  and  comprehensive,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
i-.s  intelligible  to  young  minds,  as  the  nature  of  the  subject, 
and  the  difficulties  attending  it,  would  admit.  lie  pre- 
sumes that  they  are  also  calculated  to  be  readily  committed 
to  menv)ry,  and  easily  retained.  For  this  purpose,  he  has 
been  solicitous  to  select  terms  that  are  smooth  and  voluble  ; 
to  proportion  the  members  of  the  sentences  to  one  anoth- 
er ;  to  avoid  protracted  periods  ;  and  to  give  the  whole 
definition  or  rule,  as  much  harmony  of  expression  as  he 
could  devise. 

From  tiie  sentiment  generally  admitted,  that  a  proper 
^•(lection  of  faulty  composition  is  more  instructive  to  the 


INTRODUCTION. 

young  grammarian,  than  any  rules  and  examples  of  pro- 
priety tiiat  can  be  given,  the  Compiler  has  been  induced  to 
pay  peculiar  attention  to  this  part  of  the  subject  ;  and 
though  the  instances  of  false  grammar,  under  the  rules  of 
Syntax,  are  numerous,  it  is  hoped  tht;y  will  not  be  found 
too  many,v/hen  their  variety  and  usefulness  are  considered. 

In  a  work  which  professes  itself  to  be  a  compilation,  and 
which,  from  the  nature  and  designof  it,  must  consist  chief- 
ly of  mateiials  selected  from  the  writings  of  others,  it  is 
scarcely  necessary  to  apologize  for  the  use  which  the  Com- 
piler has  made  of  his  predecessors'  labours  ;  or  for  omit- 
ting to  insert  their  names.  From  the  alterations  which 
have  been  frequently  made  in  the  sentiments  and  the  hm- 
guage,  to  suit  the  connexion,  and  to  adapt  them  to  the  par- 
ticular purposes  for  which  they  are  introduced ;  and,  in 
many  instances,  from  the  uncertainty  to  whom  the  passages 
originally  belonged,  the  insertion  of  irames  could  seldom 
be  made  with  propriety.  But  if  this  could  have  been  gen- 
erally done,  a  work  of  this  nature  would  derive  no  advan- 
tage from  it,  equal  to  the  inconvenience  of  crowding  the 
pages  with  a  repetition  of  names  and  references.  It  is, 
however,  proper  to  acknowledge,  in  general  terms,  that  the 
authors  to  whom  the  grammatical  part  of  this  compilation 
is  princi])ally  indebted  for  its  materials,  are  Harris,  Johnson,  j 
Lowth,  Priestley,  Beattie,  Sheridan,  Walker,  and  Coote. 

The  Rules  and  Observations  respecting  Perspicuity,! 
Sec.  contained  in  the  Appendix,  and  which  are,  chiefly,  ex-|. 
tracted  from  the  writings  of  Blair  and  Campbell,  will,  it  is  | 
presumed,  form  a  proper  addition  to  the  Grammar.  The 
subjects  are  very  nearly  related  ;  alid  the  study  of  perspi- 
cuity and  accuracy  in  writing,  appears  naturally  to  follow 
that  of  Grammar.  A  competent  acquaintance  .with  the 
principles  of  both,  will  prepare  and  qualify  the  students, 
for  prosecuting  those  additional  improvements  in  language, 
to  which  they  may  be  pioperly  directed. 

On  the  utility  and  importance  of  the  study  of  Grammar, 
and  the  principles  of  Composition,  much  might  be  advanc- 
ed, for  the  encouragement  of  persons  in  early  life  to  apply 
themselves  to  this  branch  of  learning  ;  but  as  the  limitsi  of 
this  Introduction  will  not  allow  of  many  observations  on  tiu-: 
subject,  a  few  leading  sentiments  are  all  that  tan  be  at!  ■ 
A  2 


VI  INTRODUCTION. 

milted  here  with  propriety.  As  words  are  the  signs'of 
our  ideas,  and  the  medium  by  which  we  perceive  the  sen- 
timents of  others,  and  communicate  our  own  ;  and  as  signs 
exhibit  the  things  which  they  are  intended  to  represent, 
more  or  less  accurately,  according  as  their  real  or  establish- 
ed conformity  to  those  things  is  more  or  less  exact ;  it  is 
evident,  that  in  proportion  to  our  knowledge  of  the  nature 
and  properties  of  v/ords,  of  their  relation  to  each  other,  and 
of  their  established  connexion  with  the  ideas  to  which  they 
are  applied,  will  be  the  certainty  and  ease,  with  which  we 
transfuse  our  sentiments  into  the  minds  of  one  another  ; 
and  that,  without  a  competent  knowledge  of  this  kind,  we 
shall  frequently  be  in  hazard  of  misunderstanding  others, 
and  of  being  misunderstood  ourselves.  It  may  indeed  be 
justly  asserted,  that  many  of  the  differences  in  opinion 
lunongst  men,  with  the  disputes,  contentions,  and  aliena- 
tions of  heart,  which  have  too  often  proceeded  from  such 
differences,  have  been  occasioned  by  a  want  of  proper  skill 
in  the  connexion  and  meaning  of  words,  and  by  a  tenacious 
misapplication  of  language. 

One  of  the  best  supports,  which  the  recommendation  of 
this  study  can  receive,  in  small  compass,  may  be  derived 
from  the  following  sentiments  of  an  eminent  and  candid 
writer*  on  language  and  composition.  "  All  that  regards 
the  study  of  composition,  merits  the  higher  attention  up- 
on this  account,  that  it  is  intimately  connected  with  the  im- 
provement of  our  intellectual  powers.  For  I  must  be  al- 
lowed to  say,  that  when  we  are  employed  after  a  pi'oper 
manner,  in  the  study  of  composition,  we  are  cultivating  the 
understanding  itsel  f.  The  study  of  arranging  and  express- 
ing our  thoughts  with  propriety,  teaches  to  thmk,  as  well 
as  to  speak,  accurately." 

Before  the  close  of  this  Introduction,  it  may  not  be  su- 
perfluous to  observe,  that  the  author  of  the  following  work 
has  lio  interest  in  it,  but  that  which  arises  from  the  hope, 
that  it  will  prove  of  some  advantage  to  young  persons,  and 
relieve  the  labours  of  those  who  are  employed  in  theii' 
education.  He  wishes  to  promote,  in  some  degree,  the 
cause  of  virtue,  as  well  as  of  learnhig  ;  and  with  this  view, 
he  has  been  studious,,  tiirough  the  whole  of  the  work?  not 
*  Blair. 


INTRODUCTION.  Vll 

only  to  avoid  every  example  and  illustration,  which  might 
have  an  improper  effect  on  the  minds  of  youth  ;  but  also  to 
introdiice,  on  many  occasions,  such  as  have  a  moral  and  re- 
ligious tendency.  His  attention  to  objects  of  so  much  im- 
portance will,  he  trusts,  meet  the  approbation  of  every  well 
disposed  reader.  If  they  were  faithfully  regarded  in  all 
books  of  education,  they  would  doubtless  contribute  very 
materially  to  the  order  and  happiness  of  society,  by  guard- 
ing the  innocence,  and  cherishing  the  virtue  of  the  risinq; 
generation.  :      "N. 

HiAd^ate^  7iear  York4^\79S\ 


ADVERTISEMENT 

TO    THE    NINTR   EDITION. 

The  eighth  edition  of  this  grammar  received  considera- 
ble alterations  and  additions  :  but  works  of  this  nature  ad- 
mit of  repeated  improvements  ;  and  are,  perhaps,  nerer 
complete.  The  author,  solicitous  to  render  his  book  more 
worthy  of  the  encouraging  approbation  bestowed  on  it  by 
the  public,  has  again  revised  the  work  with  care  and  atten- 
tion. The  new  edition,  he  hopes,  will  be  found  much  im-* 
proved.  The  additions,  which  are  very  considerable,  are, 
cliiefly,  such  as  are  calculated  to  expand  the  learner's  views 
of  the  subject ;  to  obviate  objections  ;  and  to  render  the 
study  of  grammar  both  easy  and  interesting.  This  edition 
contains  also  a  new  and  enlarged  system  of  parsing  ;  co*- 
picus  lists  of  nouns  arranged  according  to  their  gender  and 
n\;niber  ;  and  many  notes  and  observations,  Avhich  serve 
to  extend,  or  to  explain,  particular  rules  and  positions.* 

The  writer  is  sensible  that,  after  ail  his  endeavours  to 
elucidate  the  principles  of  the  work,  there  are  few  of  the 
divisions,  arrangements,  definitions,  or  rules,  against  which 

*  Tlie  author  conceives  that  the  occasional  strictures,  dispers- 
ed throup;-h  the  book,  and  intended  to  illustrate  and  support  a 
number  of  important  t,^rammatical  points,  will  not,  to  young  per- 
sons of  ingenuity,  appear  to  be  dry  and  useless  discussions.  He 
is  persuaded  that,  by  such  persons,  they  will  be  read  with  at- 
tention. And  be  presumes  that  these  strictures  wall  g-ratify  their 
cunosily,  stimulate  application,  and  give  solidity  and  perma.- 
neace  to  their  grammatical  Knowledg-c. 

tlOJLDGATE,  NEAR   YOUK;  18Q4,     , 


Vlll  INTRODUCTION. 

critical  ingenuity  cannot  devise  plausible  objections.  The 
subject  is  attended  with  so  much  intricacy,  and  admits  oi 
views  so  various,  that  it  was  not  possible  to  render  every 
part  of  it  unexceptionable  ;  or  to  accommodate  the  work  in 
all  respects,  to  the  opinions  and  prepossessions  of  every 
grammarian  and  teacher.  If  the  author  has  adopted  that 
system  which,  on  the  whole,  is  best  suited  to  the  nature  of 
the  subject,  and  conformable  to  the  sentiments  of  the  most 
judicious  grammarians  ;  if  his  reasonings  and  illustrations, 
respecting  particular  points,  are  founded  on  just  principles, 
and  the  peculiarities  of  the  English  language  ;  he  has,  per- 
haps, done  all  that  could  reasonably  be  expected  in  a  work 
of  this  nature  ;  and  he  may  warrantably  indulge  a  hope, 
that  the  book  will  be  still  more  extensively  approved  aiid 
circulated. 


1 


ENGLISH  GKi^3^MAR. 


English  grammar  is  the  art  of  speaking 
and  Avriting  the  English  language  with  propriety. 

It  is  divided  into  four  parts,  viz.  orthogra- 
phy, ETYMOLOGY,  SYNTAX,  and  PROSODY. 

This  division  may  be  rendered  more  intelligible  to 
young  minds,  by  observing,  in  other  words»  that  Grammar 
treatSj^zr*^,  of  the  form  and  sound  of  the  letters,  the  com- 
bination of  letters  into  syllables,  and  syllables  into  words  : 
aecondly^  of  the  different  sorts  of  words,  their  various  mo- 
difications, and  their  derivation  :  thirdly^  of  the  union,  and 
right  order  of  words  in  the  formation  of  a  sentence  ;  and 
lastly^  of  the  just  pronunciation,  and  poetical  constructioii 
of  sentences. 

PART  I. 
ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Chapter   1.     Of  the  Letters. 

SECTION   1. 

Of  the  nature  of  the  letters,  and  of  a  perfect  alphabet. 

Orthography  teaches  the  nature  and  powers  of 
letters,  and  the  just  method  of  speUing  words. 

A  letter  is  the  first  principle,  or  least  part,  of  a 
word. 

The  letters  of  the  English  language,  called  the 
English  alphabet,  are"  twenty -six  in  number. 

These  letters  are  the  representatives  of  certain 
articulate  sounds,  the  elements  of  the  language. 
An  articulate  sound,  is  the  sound  of  tlie  human 
voice,  formed  by  the  organs  of  speech. 


10  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


Tlie  foUowii' 

S%  i 

\  *ist 

of  the  ] 

ioman, 

Italic,  and  Old 

English  Characters, 

Ivoniun. 

Italic. 

Old  English. 

Name. 

Cap.  Small. 

Cap. 

Small. 

Cap. 

Small. 

A      a 

J 

a 

a 

a 

at. 

B      b 

B 

b 

s 

& 

bee. 

C      c 

C 

c 

c 

t 

see. 

D      d 

D 

d 

■D 

0 

dee. 

E      e 

E 

e 

€ 

t 

ee. 

F      f 

F 

f 

JF 

f 

ef^ 

G     g 

G 

& 

0 

jee. 

H      h 

H 

h 

^ 

I 

aitch. 

I       i 

I 

i 

i 

i  or  eye. 

J       J 

J 

J 

3 

i 

j^y- 

K     k 

K 

k 

iBl 

k 

kay. 

L      1 

L 

I 

L 

I 

el 

M     m 

M 

m 

^1 

m 

em. 

N      n 

N 

n 

m 

n 

eii. 

O      0 

0 

0 

© 

0 

0. 

P      p 

P 

P 

P 

P 

pee. 

Q       q 

Q 

q 

© 

q 

cue. 

R      r 

li 

r 

E 

rl 

ar. 

S       fs 

s 

s 

m 

fs 

ess. 

T     t 

r 

t 

C 

t 

tee. 

U     u 

V      V 

u 
r 

u 

V 

a 

It  or  you. 
vee. 

W    w 

w 

TV 

Mi 

to 

double  It, 

X      X 

X 

X 

f 

V 

eks. 

Y       y 

Y 

y 

P 

p 

wy. 

Z       z 

Z 

z 

% 

? 

zed. 

A  perfect 

alphabet  of 

the  En 

^'lish  language,  and,  in- 

deed,  of  eve' 

T  other  lunc 

rua^e,  would  contain  a  number  of 

ietters,  precisely  e 

qual  to  the  number  of  simple  articulate 

ORTHOGRAPKY.  11 

sounds  belonging  to  the  language.  Every  simple  sound 
would  have  its  distinct  character;  and  that  character  be 
the  representative  of  no  other  sound.  But  this  is  far  from 
being  the  state  of  the  English  alphabet.  It  has  more 
original  sounds  than  distinct  significant  letters  ;  and,  con- 
sequently, some  of  these  letters  are  made  to  represent,  not 
one  sound  alone,  but  several  sounds.  This  will  appear  by 
reflecting,  that  the  sounds  signified  by  the  united  letters 
th^  sh^  ng,  are  elementary,  and  have  no  single  appropriate 
characters,  in  our  alphabet;  and  that  the  letters  a  and  u 
represent  the  different  sounds  heard  in  hat,  hate,  hall ;  and 
in  but,  bull,  mule. 

To  explain  this  subject  more  fully  to  the  learners,  we 
shall  set  down  the  characters  made  use  of  to  represent  all 
the  elementary  articulate  sounds  of  our  language,  as  near- 
ly in  the  manner  and  order  of  the  present  English  alphabet, 
as  the  design  of  the  subject  will  admit ;  and  shall  annex  to 
each  character  the  syllable  or  word,  which  contains  its 
proper  and  distinct  sound.  And  here  it  will  be  proper  to 
begin  with  the  vowels. 


's  denoting  the 

Words  centaining  the 

iple 

sounds. 

simple  sounds. 

a 

as  heard 

in 

fate. 

a 

as 

in 

fall. 

a 

as 

in 

fat. 

a 

as 

in 

far. 

e 

as 

in 

me. 

e 

as 

in 

met. 

i 

as 

in 

pine. 

i 

as 

in 

pin. 

o 

as 

in 

no. 

o 

as 

in 

not. 

o 

as 

in 

move. 

u 

as 

in 

mule. 

u 

as 

in 

tub. 

u 

as 

in 

bull. 

By  this  list  it  appears,  that  there  are  in  the  English  lan- 
guage fourteen  simple  vowel  sounds  :  but  as  i  and  u  when 
pronounced  long,  may  be  considered  as  diphthongs,  or 
diphthongal  vowels,  our  language,  strictly  speaking,  con- 
tains but  twelve  simple  vowel  sounds  ;  to  represent  which, 


12  i;NeLISH    GRAMMAR. 

\ire  have  only  five  distinct  characters  or  letters.  If  at  iny^r, 
is  the  same  specific  sound  as  a  in  fat  ;  and  u  in  bull,  the 
same  as  o  in  move^  which  is  the  opinion  of  some  gramma- 
rians ;  then  there  are  but  ten  original  vowel  sounds  in  the 
English  language. 

The  following  list  denotes  the  sounds  of  the  consonants, 
being  in  number  twenty-two. 
Letters  denoting  the 
simple  sounds, 

b 

a 

f 

V 

h* 

k 

1 

m 

n 

P 

T 
S 
Z 
t 

w 

y 

3h 

th 

th 

zh 

Several  letters  marked  in  the  English  alphabet,  as  con- 
Sonants,  are  either  superfluous,  or  represent,  not  simple, 
but  complex  sounds.  C,  for  instance,  is  superfluous  in. 
both  its  sounds  ;  the  one  being  expressed  by  k^  and  the 
other  by  s.     G,  in  the  soft  pronunciation,  is  not  a  simple, 

*  Some  grammarians  suppose  h  to  mark  only  .in  aspiration,  or 
breathing";  but  it  appears  to  be  a  distinct  sound,  and  formed  in 
a  particular  manner,  by  tiie  organs  of  spec.  h. 

Encyclopedia  BritannicH. 


Words  containing  the 

simple  sounds. 

as  , 

heard  in 

bay,  tub. 

as 

in 

day,  sad. 

as 

in 

off;  for. 

as 

in 

van, love. 

as 

in 

egg5  go. 

as 

in 

hop,  ho. 

as 

in 

kill,  oak. 

as 

in 

lap,  all. 

as 

in 

my,  mum. 

as 

in 

no,  on. 

as 

in 

pin,  map. 

as 

in 

rap,  cry. 

as 

in 

so,  lass. 

as 

in 

zed,  buzz. 

as 

in 

top,  mat. 

as 

in 

wo,  will. 

as 

in 

ye,  yes. 

as 

in 

^    ing,  sing. 

as 

in 

shy,  ash. 

as 

in 

think,  thick. 

as 

in 

then,  them. 

as 

in 

pleasure. 

I 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  13 

but  a  complex  sound  ;  Sisagc  is  pronounced  aidg"..  J  is 
unnecessary,  because  its  sound,  and  that  of  the  soft  ^^,  are 
in  our  language  the  same.  Q,  with  its  attendant  u.,  is  ei- 
ther complex,  and  resolvable  into  A'ty,  ii^m  (jimlity  ;  or 
unnecessary,  because  its  sound  is  the  same  uith  k^  as  in 
Q-^aque.  X  is  compounded  oi  gs^  as  in  example  ;  or  of  A'^, 
as  in  exficct. 

From  the  preceding  representation,  it  appears  to  be  a 
point  of  considerable  importance,  that  every  learner  of 
the  English  language  should  be  ta\ight  to  pronounce  per- 
fectly, and  with  facility,  every  original  simple  sound  tliat 
belongs  to  it.  By  a  timely  and  judicious  care  in  this  re- 
spect, the  voice  will  be  prepared  to  utter,  with  ease  and 
accuracy,  every  combination  of  sounds  ;  and  taught  to 
avoid  that  confused  and  imperfect  manner  of  pronounc- 
ing words,  which  accompanies,  through  life,  many  per- 
sons, who  have  not,  in  this  respect,  been  properly  in- 
structed at  an  early  period. 

Letters  are  divided  into  Vowels  and  Conso- 
nants. 

A  Vowel  is  an  articulate  sound,  that  can  be 
perfectly  uttered  by  itself :  as,  c,  <?,  o  ;  w  hich 
are  formed  without  the  help  of  any  other  sound. 

A  Consonant  is  an  articulate  sound,  which 
cannot  be  perfectly  uttered  without  the  help  of  a 
vowel  :  as,  6,  d^J\  I ;  which  require  vowels  to 
express  them  fully. 

The  vowels  are,  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  and  sometimes  w 
and  2/. 

/^and  y  are  consonants  when  they  begin  a 
word  or  syllable  :  but  in  every  other  situation 
they  are  vowels. 

.  It  is  generally  acknowledged  by  the  best  grammarians, 
that  w  and  tj  are  consonants  when  they  begin  a  syllable 
or  word,  and  vowels  wiien  they  end  one.  That  they  arc 
consonants,  when  used  as  initials,  seems  to  be  evident 
fioni  their  not  admitting  the  article  an  before  them,  as  it 
Would  be  improper  to   say  an  walnut,  an  yard,  &c.  ;  and 

B 


14  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

from  their  following  a  vowel  without  any  hiatus  or  dlil4- 
culty  of  utterance  ;  as,  frosty  winter,  rosy  youth.  That 
they  are  vowels  in  other  situations,  appears  from  their 
rej^ularly  taking  the  sound  of  other  vowels  :  as,  ?i>  has  the 
exact  sound  oi  n  in  saw,  few,  now,  Sec.  ;  and  y  that  of?, 
in  hymn,  fly,  crystal,  &c.  See  the  letters  VV  and  Y, 
page  25.* 

\\'e  present  the  following  as  more  exact  and  philoso- 
phical definitions  of  a  vowel  and  consonant. 

A  vowel  is  a  simple,  articulate  sound,  perfect  in  itself, 
and  formed  by  a  contmued  eft'usion  of  the  breath,  and  a 
certain  conformation  of  the  mouth,  without  any  alteration 
in  the  position,  or  any  motion  of  the  organs  of  speech, 
from  the  moment  the  vocal  sound  commences,  till  it 
ends. 

A  consonant  is  a  simple,  articulate  sound,  imperfect  by 
itself,  but  which,  joined  with  a  vowel,  forms  a  complete 
bound,  by  a  particular  motion  or  contact  of  the  organs  of 
speech. 

Some  grammarians  subdivide  vowels  into  the  simjile 
and  the  co7njio unci.  But  there  does  not  appear  to  bv  any 
foundation  for  the  distinction.  Simplicity  is  essential  to 
the  nature  of  a  vowel,  which  excludes  every  degree  of 
mixed  or  compound  sounds.  It  requires,  according  to 
the  delinition,  but  one  conformation  of  the  organs  of 
speech,  to  form  it,  and  no  motion  in  the  organs,  whilst  it 
is  forming. 

Consonants  are  divided  into  mutes  and  semi- 
voweis. 

The  mutes  cannot  be  sounded  at  all,  ^vithout 
the  aid  of  a  vowel.  They  are  6,  p,  t,  d,  k,  and  c^ 
and  1^  hard. 

The  semi-vowels  have  an  imperfect  sound  of 
themselves.  They  are/,  /,  m,  n,  r,  v,  s,  z,  x, 
and  c  and  g  soft. 

*  The  letters  wand //  are  of  an  ambig-uous  nature  ;  being  con- 
sonants at  the  beginning  of  words,  and  vowels  attiie  end. 

Encyclopaedia  Britonnica. 

\Valkev*s  Critical  Pronouncing  Dictionary,  page  24.  third  edition. 
..Porrv's  F.Mglish  Diciionary,  Preface,  page  7. 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  lf> 

Four  of  the  semi-vowels,  namely,  /,  m,  7?,  r, 
are  also  distinguished  by  the  name  oUiqukJs,  from 
their  readily  uniting  with  other  consonants,  and 
tiowing  as  it  were  into  their  sounds. 

We  have  shown  above,  that  it  is  essential  to  the  nature 
of  a  consonant,  that  it  cannot  be  fully  uttered  without  the 
aid  of  a  vowel.  We  may  further  observe,  that  even  Ihc 
names  of  the  consonants,  as  they  are  pronounced  in  rccit- 
in;^  the  alphabet,  require  the  help  of  vowels  to  express 
them.  In  pronouncincj  the  names  of  the  mutes,  the  as- 
sistant vowelsybZ/ow  the  consonants:  as,  be^fie^  tc^  de^ka. 
In  pronouncing'  the  names  of  the  semi-vowels,  the  vowels 
generally  Jirecede  the  consonants  :  as,  cf^  c/,  em,  en^  ar^  es^ 
-.      The  exceptions  are,  ce^ge^  ve^  zed. 

This  distinction  between  the  nature  and  the  iicme  of  a 
consonant,  is  of  great^importunce,  and  should  be  w^il  e:> 
plained  to  the  pupil.  They  are  frequently  coiifounded  by 
M'riters  on  grammar  Observations  and  reasonings  on 
the  name,  are  often  applied  to  explain  the  nature,  of  a 
consonant:  and,  by  this  means,  the  student  is  l.-d  iiiio 
errour  and  perplexity,  respecting-  these  elements,  cf  Um- 
guat^e.  It  should  be  impressed  on  his  mind,  that  the 
name  of  every  consonant  is  a  complex  sound  ;  but  thaf 
the  consonant  itself,  is  always  a  ahn/ile  sound. 

Some  v/riter.s  have  described  the  mutes  and  semi- vowels, 
with  their  subdivisions,  nearly  in  the  following  manner. 

The  mutes  are  those  consonants,  whose  sounds  cuiinof, 
be  protracted.  The  f!em:-vowr/s^  such  whose  sounds  can 
be  continued  at  pleasure,  partaking  of  the  iVAiure  of  vow- 
els, from  wdiich  they  derive  their  name. 

The   mutes  may  be  subdivided  into  pure  and  in^/rure. 
The  pure  are  those  whose  sounds  cannot  be  at  all   pro- 
longed: they  are  A-, /z,  ^     The  impure,  arc  those  whose 
sounds  may  be  continued,  though  lor  a  very  short  space  :  - 
they  are  by  r/,  g. 

'I'he  semi-vowels  may  l)e  subdivicied  into  vocal  and  as^ 
pirated.  The  vocal  are  those  which  are  formed  by  the 
voice  ;  the  aspirated,  those  formed  by  the  breath.  There. 
ai'e  eleven  vocal,  and  five  aspirated.  The  vocal  are  /,  /;/, 
n,  r,  T',  7y,  ij^  z,  th  flat,  z//,  ng ;  the  aspirated,  /;  /;,  v-,  th 
sharp,  sh. 


16  ENGLISPI    GRAMMAR. 

The  vocal  semi-vowels  may  be  subclivided  into /iz«r<*  and 
jjn/iurc.  The  pure  are  those  which  are  formed  entirely 
by  the  voice  :  the  impure,  such  as  have  a  mixture  of  breath 
with  the  voice.  There  are  seven  pure — /,  ?«,  7z,  r,  iVy  y, 
ng' :  four  impure— v,  .t,  th  fl;it,  zh. 

A  diphihoni;^  is  the  uiiion  of  two  vowels,  pro- 
nouaced  by  a  single  impulse  of  the  voice ;  as,  ea 
m  beat,  ou  m  sound. 

A  tripluhongis  the  union  of  three  vowels,  pro- 
nojiiced  in  like  manner ;  as,  eaii  in  beau,  lew  in 
view. 

A  proper  diphthong  is  that  in  which  both  the 
vowels  are  sounded  ;  as,  oi  in  voice,  on  in  ounce. 

An  improper  diphthong  has  but  one  of  the 
\o^vtl:u  sounded  ;  as,  ea  in  eagle,  oa  in  boat. 

Euc'n  of  the  diphthongal  letters  was,  doubtless,  original- 
ly heard  in  pronouncing  the  words  which  contain  them.... 
Though  this  is  not  the  case  at  present,  with  respect  to 
many  of  them,  these  combinations  still  retain  the  name  of 
diphthongs  ;  but,  to  distinguish  them,  they  are  marked  by 
the  term  imjirojier.  As  the  diphthong  derives  its  name 
and  nature  from  its  sound,  and  not  from  its  letters,  and 
properly  denotes  a  double  vowel  sound,  no  union  of  two 
vowels,  where  one  is  silent,  can,  in  strictness,  be  entitled 
to  that  appellation  ;  and  the  single  letters  /  and  w,  when 
pronounced  long,  must,  in  this  view,  be  considered  as 
diphthongs.  The  ti'iphthongs,  having  at  most  but  twa 
sounds,  are  merely  ocular,  and  are,  therefore,  by  some 
grammarians  classed  with  the  diphthongs. 

SFXTION  1. 

General  observations  on  the  sounds  0/ the  letters. 
A. 
^i  has  four  sounds  ;  the  long  or  slender,  the  broad,  the 
short  or  open,  and  the  middle. 

The  long  ;  as  in  name,  basin,  creation. 
Tho  broad  ;  as  in  cull,  v/all,  all. 
Tiic  short  ;   as  m  barrel,  fancy,  glass. 
'Vhe  middle  ;  as  in  far,  farm,  father. 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  IT 

The  diphthong  aa  generally  sounds  like  a  short  in  pro- 
per names  ;  as  in  Balaam,  Canaan,  Isaac  ;  but  not  in  Baal, 
Gaal. 

.de  has  the  sound  of  long  e.  It  is  sometimes  found  in 
Latin  words.  Some  authors  retain  this  form  ;  as,  aenig- 
ma,  aequator,  kc.  ;  but  others  have  laid  it  aside,  and  write 
enigma,  Cesar,  Eneas,  kc. 

The  diphthong  ai  has  exactly  the  long  slender  sound 
of  a  ;  as  in  pail,  tail,  Sec.  ;  pronounced  pale,  tale,  Sec.  : 
except  plciid,  again,  raillery,  fountain,  Britain,  and  a  few 
others. 

Jii  is  generally  sounded  like  the  broad  a ;  as  in  taught, 
caught,  &.C.  Sometimes  like  the  short  or  open  a  ;  as  in 
aunt,  flaunt,  gauntlet,  8cc.  It  has  the  sound  of  long  o  in 
hautboy  ;  and  that  of  o  short  in  laurel,  laudanum,  &c. 

Aw  has  always  the  sound  of  broad  a  ;  as  in  bawl,  scrawl, 
crawl. 

Ay^  like  its  near  relation  az,  is  pronounced  like  the  long; 
slender  sound  of  a  ;  as  in  pay,  day,  delay. 

B. 

B  keeps  one  unvaried  sound,  at  the  beginning,  middle, 
and  end  of  words  ;  as  in  baker,  number,  rliubarb,  8cc. 

In  some  words  it  is  silent ;  as  in  thumb,  debtor,  subtle, 
Sec.  In  others,  besides,  being  silent,  it  lengthens  the  syl- 
lable J  as  in  climb,  comb,  tomb. 

C. 

C  has  two  different  sounds. 

A  hard  sound  like  A-,  before  «,  o,  w,  r,  /,  i  ;  as  in  cart, 
cottage,  curious,  craft,  tract,  cloth,  kc.  ;  and  when  it  ends 
a  syllable  ;  as  in  victim,  flaccid. 

A  soft  sound  like  s  before  f,  e,  and  y,  generally  ;  as  in 
centre,  face,  civil,  cymbal,  mercy,  &c.  It  has  sometimes 
the  sound  of  sh  :  as  in  ocean,  social. 

C  is  mute  in  czar,  czarina,  victuals,  &c. 

C!,  says  Dr.  Johnson,  according  to  English  orthography, 
never  ends  a  word  ;  and  therefore  we  find  in  our  best  dic- 
tionaries, stick,  block,  publick,  politick,  kc.  But  many 
writers  of  latter  years  omit  the  k  in  words  of  two  or  more 
syllables  ;  and  this  practice  is  gaining  ground,  though  it 
is  productive  of  irregularities  ;  such  as  writing  namic  and 
mimickry  j  traffic  and  trafficking. 
B  2 


18  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Ch  is  commonly  sounded  like  tch  ;  as  in  church,  chin, 
ehafi'j  charter  :  but  in  words  derived  from  the  Greek,  has 
the  sound  of  k  ;  as  in  chymist,  scheme,  chorus,  chyle, 
cUstich  ;  and  in  foreign  names  ;  as,  Achish,  Baruch, 
Enoch,  &c. 

C/z,  in  some  words  derived  from  the  French,  takes  the 
sound  of  sh  ;  as  in  chaise,  chagrin,  chevalier,  machine. 

Ch  in  arch,  before  a  vowel,  sounds  like  k  ;  as  in  arch- 
angel, archives.  Archipelago  ;  except  in  arched,  archery, 
archer,  and  arch-enemy  ;  but  before  a  consonant  it  always 
sounds  like  tch  ;  as  in  archbishop,  archduke,  archpresby- 
ter,  Sec.     Ch  is  silent  in  schedule,  schism,  and  yacht. 

D. 

D  keeps  one  uniform  sound,  at  the  beginning,  middle, 
and  end  of  words  ;  as  in  death,  bandage,  kindred  ;  unless 
it  may  be  said  to  take  the  sound  of  t,  in  stuffed,  tripped^ 
kc.  stuft,  tript,  &C. 

E. 

E  has  three  different  sounds. 

A  long  sound  ;  as  in  scheme,  glebe,  severe,  pulley. 

A  short  sound ;  as  in  men,  bed,  clemency. 

An  obscure  and  scarcely  perceptible  sound  ;  as,  open, 
lucre,  participle. 

It  has  sometimes  the  sound  of  middle  a  ;  as  in  clerk, 
Serjeant ;  and  sometimes  that  of  short  i  ;  as  in  England^ 
yes,  pretty. 

E  is  always  mute  at  the  end  of  a  word,  except  in  mono- 
syllables that  have  nd  other  vowel ;  as,  me,  he,  she  ;  or  ia 
substantives  derived  from  the  Greek  ;  as,  catastrophe,  epi- 
tome, Penelope.  It  is  used  to  soften  and  modify  the  fore- 
going consonants  ;  as,  force,  rage,  since,  oblige  :  or  to 
lengthen  tiie  preceding  vowel  j  as,  can,  cane  ;  pin,  pine  ; 
rob,  robe. 

The  diphthong  ea  is  generally  sounded  like  e  long ;  as 
in  appear,  beaver,  creature,  Sec.  It  has  also  the  sound  of 
short  e  ;  as  in  breath,  meadow,  treasure.  And  it  is  some- 
times pronounced  like  the  long  and  slender  a  ;  as  in  bear, 
T^reak,  great. 

Euu  has  the  sound  of  long  o  ;  as  in  beau,  flambeau, 
portr.ianteau.  In  beauty  and  itis  compounds,  it  has  the 
sound  of  long  u. 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  19 

iiV,  in  general,  sounds  the  same  as  long  and  slender  a  ; 
as  in  deign,  vein,  neighbour.  Sec.  It  has  the  sound  of  long 
e  in  seize,  deceit,  receive,  neither.  Sec.  It  is  sometimes 
pronounced  like  short  i;  as  in  foreign,  forfeit,  sove- 
reign, 8cC. 

Ho  is  pronounced  like  e  long  ;  as  in  people  ;  and  some- 
limes  like  e  short ;  as  in  leopard,  jeopardy.  It  has  also 
the  sound  of  short  u ;  as  in  dungeon,  sturgeon,  pun- 
cheon, &c. 

Eu  is  always  sounded  like  \or\^uoveiv;  as  in  feud, deuce. 

Etj  is  almost  always  pronounced  like  long  u  ;  as  in  few, 
new,  dew. 

Ey,  when  the  accent  is  on  it,  is  always  pronounced  like 
a  long  ;  as  in  bey,  grey,  convey  ;  except  in  key,  ley,  where 
it  is  sounded  like  long  e. 

When  this  diphthong  is  unaccented,  it  takes  the  sound 
of  e  long  J  as,  alley,  valley,  barley. 

F. 

F  keeps  one  pure  unvaried  sound  at  the  beginning, 
middle,  and  end  of  words  ;  as,  fancy,  muffin,  mischief,  See. 
except  in  o/,  in  which  it  has  the  flat  sound  of  ov  ;  but  not 
in  composition  ;  as,  whereof,  thereof.  Sec.  We  should  not 
pronounce,  a  wive's  jointure,  a  calve's  head  ;  but  a  wife's 
jointure,  a  calf's  head. 

G. 

G  has  two  sounds  :  one  hard  ;  as  in  gay,  go,  gun  ;  the 
©ther  soft ;  as  in  gem,  giant. 

At  the  end  of  a  word  it  is  always  hard  ;  as  in  bag,  snug, 
frog.  It  is  hard  before  a,  o,  w,  /,  and  r  ;  as,  game,  gone, 
gull,  glory,  grandeur. 

G  l^efore  e,  z,  and  i/,  is  soft ;  as  in  genius,  gesture,  gin- 
ger, Egypt ;  except  in  get,  gewgaw,  finger,  craggy,  and 
some  others. 

G  is  mute  before  n  ;  as  in  gnash,  sign,  foreign,  &c. 

G7Z,  at  the  end  of  a  word,  or  syllable  accented,  gives  the 
preceding  vov/el  a  long  sound  ;  as  in  resign,  impugn,  op- 
pugn, impregn,  impugned ;  pronounced  impune,  im- 
prene,  &cc 

G/iy  at  the  beginning  of  a  word,  has  the  sound  of  the  hard 
.§• ;  as,  ghost,  ghastly  :  in  the  middle,  and  sometimes  at  the 
end,  it  is  quite  silent  j  a&  in  right,  high,  plough,  mighty. 


20  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

At  the  end  it  has  often  the  sound  of/;  as  in  laugh, 
cough,  tough.  Somelimes  only  the  g  is  sounded  ;  as  in 
burgh,  burgher. 

H. 

The  sound  signified  by  this  letter,  is,  as  before  observ- 
ed, an  aiticulate  sound,  and  not  merely  an  aspiration.  It 
is  heard  in  the  words,  hat,  horse,  Hull.  It  is  seldom  mute 
at  the  beginning  of  a  word.  It  is  always  silent  after  r  ;  as 
rhetoric,  rheum,  rhubarb. 

H  final,  preceded  by  a  vowel,  is  always  silent ;  as,  ah  ! 
hah  !  oh  I  foh  !  Sarah,  Messiah. 

From  the  faintness  of  the  sound  of  this  letter,  in  many 
words,  and  its  total  silence  in  othei*s,  added  to  the  negli- 
gence of  tutors,  and  the  inattention  of  pupils,  it  has  hap- 
pened, that  many  persons  have  become  almost  incapable 
of  acquiring  its  just  and  full  pronunciation.  It  is  there- 
fore, incumbent  on  teachers,  to  be  particularly  careful  to 
inculcate  a  clear  and  distinct  utterance  of  this  sound. 

I. 

I  has  a  long  sound  ;  as  in  fine  ;  and  a  short  one  ;  as 
in  fin. 

The  long  sound  is  always  marked  by  the  e  final  in 
nQonosyllables  ;  as,  thin,  thine  ;  except  give,  live.  Before 
r  it  is  often  sounded  like  a  short  u  ;  as,  flirt,  first.  In 
some  words  it  has  the  sound  of  e  long  ;  as  in  machine, 
bombazine,  magazine. 

The  diphthong  ia  is  frequently  sounded  like  ya  ;  as  in 
christian,  filial,  poniard  ;  pronounced  christ-yan,  8cc.  It 
has  sometimes  the  sound  of  short  i  ;  as  in  carriage,  mar- 
riage, parliament. 

le  sounds  in  general  like  e  long  ;  as  in  grief,  thief, 
grenadier.  It  has  also  the  sound  of  long  i ;  as  in  die,  pie, 
lie  :  and  sometimes  that  of  short  i  ;  as  in  sieve. 

leu  has  the  sound  of  long  u  j  as  in  lieu,  adieu,  purlieu. 

lo,  when  the  accent  is  upon  the  fiist  vowel,  forms  two 
distinct  syllables  ;  as,  prioiy,  violet,  violent.  The  termi- 
nations Hon  and  sio7i,  are  sounded  exactly  like  the  verb 
shun,  except  when  the  t  is  preceded  by  «  or  x  ;  as  in 
question,   digestion,  combustion,  mixtion,  &c. 

The  triphtliong  iou  is  sometimes  pronounced  distinctly 
in  two  syllables  j  as  in  bilious,  various,  abstemious.     But 


ORTHOGRAPHX.  21 

these  vowels  often  coalesce  into  one  syllable  ;  as  in  pre- 
cious, factious,  noxious. 

J. 

J  is  pronounced  exactly  like  soft  5*  ;  except  in  hallelu- 
jah, where  it  is  pronounced  like  y. 

K. 

K  has  the  sound  of  c  hard,  and  is  used  before  e  and  iy 
where,  according  to  English  analogy,  c  would  be  soft ;  as, 
kept,  king,  skirts.  It  is  not  sounded  before  n  ;  as  in  knifc^ 
knell,  knocker.  It  is  never  doubled  ;  except  in  Habakkuk  ; 
but  c  is  used  before  it,  to  shorten  the  vowel  by  a  double 
consonant ;  as,  cockle,  pickle,  sucker. 

L. 

L  has  always  a  soft  liquid  sound  ;  as  in  love,  billow, 
quarrel.  It  is  sometimes  mute  ;  as  in  half,  talk,  psalm. 
The  custom  is  to  double  the  /  at  the  end  of  monosylla- 
bles ;  as,  mill,  will,  fall  ;  except  where  a  diphthong  pre- 
cedes it ;  as,  hail,  toil,  soil. 

Le  at  the  end  of  words,  is  pronounced  like  a  weak  el  ; 
in  which  the  e  is  almost  mute  ;  as,  table,  shuttle. 

M. 

iVf  has  always  the  same  sound  ;  as,  murmur,  monumen- 
tal, except  in  comptroller,  which  is  pronounced  controller. 

N. 

^*has  two  sounds  :  the  one  pure  ;  as  in  man,  net,  no- 
ble ;  the  other  a  ringing  sound  like  ng  ;  as  in  thank,  ban- 
quet, Sec. 

A*  is  mute  when  it  ends  a  syllable,  and  is  preceded  by 
m  ;  as,  hymn,  solemn,  autumn. 

The  participle  ing  must  ahvays  have  its  ringing  sound  ; 
as,  writing,  reading,  speaking.  Some  writers  have  sup- 
posed that  when  ing  is  preceded  by  ing^  it  should  be  pro- 
nounced in  ;  as,  singing,  bringing,  should  be  sounded  sing- 
bin,  bringin :  but  as  it  is  a  good  rule,  with  respect  to  pro- 
nunciation, to  adhere  to  the  written  words,  unless  custom 
has  clearly  decided  otherwise,  it  does  not  seem  proper  to 
adopt  this  innovation. 

O. 

O  has  a  long  sound  ;  as  in  note,  bone,  obedient,  over  ] 
and  a  short  one  j  as  in  not,  got,  lot,  irot. 


22  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

It  has  sometimes  the  short  sound  of  u  ;  as,  son,  come, 
attorney.  And  in  some  words  it  is  sounded  like  oo  ;  as  in 
prove,  move  ;  and  often  like  au  ;  as  in  nor,  for,  lord. 

The  diphthong  oa  is  regularly  pronounced  as  the  long 
sound  of  0  ;  as  in  boat,  oat,  coal ;  except  in  broad,  abroad, 
groat,  where  it  takes  the  sound  of  broad  a  ;  as,  ubrawd.  Sec. 

Oe  has  the  sound  of  single  e.  It  is  sometimes  long  ;  as 
in  fcetus,  Antoeci :  and  sometimes  short ;  as  in  cecono- 
raics,  oecumenical.  In  doe,  foe,  sloe,  toe,  throe,  hoe,  and 
bilboes,  it  is  sounded  exactly  like  long  o, 

Ql  has  almost  universally  the  double  sound  of  a  broad 
and  e  long  united,  as  in  boy  ;  as,  boil,  toil,  spoil,  joint,  point, 
anoint :  which  should  never  be  pronounced  as  if  v/ritten 
bile,  spile,  tile.  Sec. 

Oo  almost  always  preserves  its  regular  sound  ;  as  in 
moon,  soon,  food.  It  has  a  shorter  sound  in  \yool,  good, 
foot,  and  a  few  others.  In  blood  and  flood  it  sounds  like 
short  u.  Door  and  floor  should  always  be  pronoimced  e^s 
if  written  dore  and  flore. 

The  diphthong  ou  has  six  different  sounds.  The  first 
and  proper  sound  is  equivalent  to  ow  in  down  ;  as  in 
bound,  found,  surround. 

The  second  is  that  of  short  u :  as  in  enough,  trouble> 
journey. 

The  third  is  that  of  oo  ;  as  in  soup,  youth,  tournament. 

The  fourth  is  that  of  long  q  ;  as  in  though,  mourn,  poul- 
tice. 

The  fifth  is  that  of  short  o  ;  as  in  cough,  trough. 

The  sixth  is  that  of  aiv?  ;  as  in  ought,  brought,  thought. 

Qw  is  ge3:ierally  sounded  like  on  in  thou  ;  as  in  brown, 
dowry,  shower.  It  has  also  the  sound  of  long  o  ;  as  in 
snow,  grow,  bestow. 

Tiie  diphthong  oy  is  but  another  form  for  o?,  and  is  pro- 
nounced exactly  like  it. 

P. 

P  has  always  the  same  sound,  except,  perhaps,  in  cup- 
board, where  it  sounds  like  h.  Iti:.  sometimes  mute  ;  as 
in  psalm,  psaitcr,  Ptolemy:  and  between  m  and/":  as, 
tempt,  empty,  presumptuous. 

Ph  is  generally  pronounced  like  /:  as  in  philosophy, 
philanthrophy,  Philip. 


ORTHOGRAPHy.  £3 

In  nephew  and  Stephen,  it  has  the  sound  of  i;.  In  apo- 
phthegm, phthisis,  phthisic,  and  phthisical,  both  letters 
are  entirely  dropped. 

Q 

Q  is  always  followed  by  u  ;  as,  quadrant,  queen,  quire. 

Qu  is  sometimes  sounded  like  fc ;  as,  conquer,  liquor, 
risque. 

R. 

i?  has  a  rough  sound  ;  as  in  Rome,  river,  rage  :  and  a 
smooth  one  ;  as  in  bard,  curd,  regard. 

Re  at  the  end  of  many  words,  is  pronounced  like  a  weak 
er  ;  as  in  theatre,  sepulchre,  massacre. 

S. 

S  has  two  diiferent  sounds. 

A  soft  and  flat  sound  like  z  ;  as,  besom,  nasal,  dismal. 

A  sharp  hissing  sound  ;  as,  saint,  sister,  Cyprus. 

It  is  always  sharp  at  the  beginning  of  words. 

At  the  end  of  words  it  takes  the  soft  sound  ;  as,  his,  was, 
trees,  eyes  ;  except  in  the  words,  this,  thus,  us,  yes,  rebus, 
surplus,  See.  and  in  words  terminating  with  ous. 

It  sounds  like  z  before  zon,  if  a  vowel  goes  before  ;  as, 
intrusion  ;  but  like  s  sharp,  if  it  follows  a  consonant ;  as, 
conversion.  It  also  sounds  like  z  before  e  mute  ;  as, 
amuse ;  and  before  y  final ;  as,  rosy  :  and  in  the  words 
bosom,  desire,  wisdom.  Sec 

a  is  mute  in  isle,  isUmd,  demesne,  viscount. 
T. 

T  generally  sounds,  as  in  take,  tempter.  T  before  ?/, 
when  the  accent  firecedcs^  sounds  like  tch  :  as,  nature,  vir- 
tue, are  pronounced  natchure,  virtchue.  Ti  before  a  vow- 
el, has  the  sound  of  sh ;  as  in  salvation  ;  except  in  such 
words  as  tierce,  tiiira,  &c.  and  unless  an  5  goes  before  ;  as, 
question  ;  and  excepting  also  derivatives  from  words  end- 
ing in  ty  ;  as,  mighty,  mightier. 

7^h  has  two  sounds :  the  one  soft  and  flat  ;  as,  thus, 
whether,  heathen  :  the  other  hard  and  sharp  ;  as,  thing, 
think,  breath. 

77:,  at  the  beginning  of  words,  is  sharp  ;  as  in  thank, 
thick,  thunder,  except  m  that,  then,  thus,  thither,  and 
some  others.  7\  at  the  end  of  words,  is  also  sharp  ;  as, 
death,  bieath,  mouih  :  except  in  with^  booth,  beneath,  &;c. 


24  ENGLISH    GKAMMAU. 

77/,  in  the  middle  of  words,  is  sharp  ;  as,  panther,  or- 
thodox, misanthrope  :  except  worthy,  farthing,  brethren, 
and  ti  few  others. 

77z,  between  two  vowels,  is  generally  flat  in  words  pure- 
ly English  ;  as,  father,  heathen,  together,  neither,  mother. 

77/,  between  two  vowels,  in  words,  from  the  learned 
languages,  is  generally  sharp ;  as,  apathy,  sympathy, 
Athens,  theatre,  apothecary. 

Th  is  sometimes  pronounced  like  simple  i  ;  as,Thomas, 
thyme,  Thames,  asthma. 

U. 

U  has  three  sounds,  viz. 

A  long  sound  ;  as  in  mule,  tube,  cubic. 

A  short  sound  ;  as  in  dull,  gull,  custard. 

An  obtuse  sound,  like  oo  ;  as  in  bull,  full,  bushel. 

The  strangest  deviation  of  this  letter  from  its  natural 
sound,  is  in  the  words  busy,  business,  bury,  and  burial  ; 
which  are  pronounced  bizzy,  bizness,  berry,  and  berrial. 

A  is  now  often  used  before  words  beginning  with  u  long, 
and  an  always  before  those  that  begin  with  u  short ;  as,  a 
union,  a  university  a  useful  book  ;  an  uproar,  an  usher,  an 
umbrella. 

The  diphthong  z/a,  has  sometimes  the  sound  of  nva  ;  as 
in  assuage,  persuade,  antiquary.  It  has  also  the  sound  of 
middle  a  ;  as  in  guard,  guardian,  guarantee. 

Uc  is  often  sounded  like  we  ;  as  in  quench,  querist, 
conquest  It  has  also  the  sound  of  long  u  :  as  in  cue,  hue, 
ague.  In  a  few  words,  it  is  pronounced  like  e  short ;  as 
in  guest,  guess  In  some  words  it  is  entirely  sunk  ;  as  in 
antique,  oblique,  prorogue,  catalogue,  dialogue,  &c. 

Ui  is  frequently  pronounced  nvi  ;  as  in  languid,  anguish, 
ex'inguish.  It  has  sometimes  the  sound  of  i  long  ;  as  in 
guide,  guile,  disguise  :  and  sometimes  that  of  i  short  ;  as 
in  guiit,  guinea,  Guildhall.  In  some  words  it  is  soimded 
like  long  u  ;  as  in  juice,  suit,  pursuit  ;  and  after  r,  like 
00  ;  as  ill  bruise,  fruir,  recruit. 

Uo  is  pronounced  like  ivo  ;  as  in  quote,  quorum,  quon- 
dam. 

Uy  has  the  sound  of  long  e  ;  as  in  obloquy,  soliloquy  ; 
pronounced  obloquee,  &c.  except  buy,  and  its  derivatives. 


ORTHOGRAPHV.  25 

V. 

V  has  the  sound  of  flat/,  and  bears  the  same  relation  to 
it,  as  b  does  to  fi,  d  to  t,  hard  g"  to  k^  and  z  to  s.     It  has  a!- 
so  one  uniform  sound;  as,  vain,  vanity,  love. 
W. 

TV,  when  a  consonant,  has  nearly  the  sound  of  oo  ;  as 
water  resembles  the  sound  of  ooater ;  but  that  it  iias  a 
stronger  and  quicker  sound  than  oo^  and  has  a  formation 
essentially  different,  will  appear  to  any  person  who  pro- 
nounces, with  attention,  the  words  wo,  woo,  bevjare  ;  and 
who  reflects  that  it  will  not  admit  the  article  an  before  it ; 
which  00  would  admit.  In  some  words  it  is  not  sounded  ; 
as  in  answer,  sword,  wholesome  :  it  is  always  silent  before 
r ;  as  in  wrap,  wreck,  wrinkle,  wrist,  wrong,  wry,  be- 
wray, Sec. 

IV  before  h  is  pronounced  as  if  it  were  after  the  h ;  as, 
why,  hwy  ;  when,  hwen  ;  what,  hwat. 

W^is  often  joined  to  o  at  the  end  of  a  syllable,  without 
aiffecting  the  sound  of  that  vowel ;  as  in  crow,  blow,  growj 
know,  row,  flow,  &c. 

When  w  is  a  vowel,  and  is  distinguished  in  the  pronun- 
ciation, it  has  exactly  the  same  sound  as  u  would  have  in 
the  same  situation ;  as,  draw,  crew,"  view,  now,  sawyer^ 
Vowel,  outlaw. 

X. 

X  has  three  sounds,  viz. 

It  is  sounded  like  2  at  the  beginning  of  proper  names 
of  Greek  original ;  as  in  Xanthus,  Xenophon,  Xerxes. 

It  has  a  sharp  sound  like  ks,  when  it  ends  a  syllable  with 
the  accent  upon  it ;  as  exit,  exercise,  excellence ;  or  when 
the  accent  is  on  the  next  syllable,  if  it  begins  with  a  con- 
sonant ;  as,  excuse,  extent,  expense. 

It  has,  generally,  a  flat  sound  like  gz,  when  the  accent 
is  not  on  it,  and  the  following  syllable  begins  with  a  vowel ; 
as,  exert,  exist,  example  ;  pronounced  egeert,  egzist,  eg- 
zample. 

Y. 

F,  when  a  consonant,  has  nearly  the  sound  of  ee ;  as, 

youth,  York,  resembles  the  sounds  of  eeouth,  ecork  :  but 

that  this  is  not  its  exact  sound,  will  be  clearly  perceived  by 

pronouncing  the  words  ye,  yes,  new-year,  in  which  its  just 

C 


26  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

and  proper  sound  is  ascertained.  It  not  only  requires  a 
stronger  exertion  of  the  organs  of  speech  to  pronounce  it, 
than  is  required  to  pr  'uounce  ee  ;  but  its  formation  is  es- 
sentially (lifferent.  It  will  not  admit  of  an  before  it,  as  ee 
vf'iW  in  the  following  example  ;  an  eel.  The  opinion  that 
y  and  ry,  when  they  begin  a  w'ord  or  syllable,  take  exactly 
the  sound  of  ee  and  oo,  has  induced  some  grammarians  to 
iissert>  that  these  letters  are  always  vowels  or  diphthongs. 

When  t/  is  a  vowel,  it  has  exactly  the  same  sound  as  i 
would  ha\e  in  the  same  situation  ;  as,  rhyme,  system,  jus- 
tifv,  pyrajnid,  party,  fancy,  hungry. 

Z. 

Z  has  the  sound  of  an  «  uttered  with  a  closer  compres- 
sion of  the  palate  by  the  tongue  :  it  is  the  flat  s  ;  as,  freeze, 
frozen,  brazen. 

It  may  be  proper  to  remark,  that  the  sounds  of  the  let- 
ters vary,  as  they  are  differently  associated,  and  that  the 
pronunciation  of  these  associations  depends  upon  the  posi- 
tion of  the  accent.  It  may  also  be  observed,  that,  in  order 
to  pronounce  accurately,  great  attention  must  be  paid  to 
the  vowels  which  are  not  accented.  There  is  scarcely  any 
thing  which  more  distinguishes  a  person  of  a  poor  educa- 
tion, from  a  person  of  a  good  one,  than  the  pronunciation 
of  the  unaccented  vowels.  When  vowels  are  under  the 
accent^  the  best  speakers  and  the  lowest  of  the  people, 
with  very  few  exceptions,  pronounce  them  in  the  same 
manner ;  but  the  unaccented  vowels  in  the  mouths  of  the 
former,  have  a  distinct,  open,  and  specific  sound,  while 
the  latter  often  totally  sink  them,  or  change  them  into 
spme  other  sound. 

SECTION  3. 

The  nature  of  articulation  exfilaitied. 

A  CONCISE  account  of  the  origin  and  formation  of  the 
sounds  emitted  by  the  human  voice,  may  perhaps,  not  im- 
properly, be  here  introduced.  It  may  gratify  the  ingenious 
student,  and  serve  to  explain  more  fully  the  nature  of  ar- 
ticulation, and  the  radical  distinction  between  vowels  and 
consonants. 

Human  voice  is  air  sent  out  from  the  lungs,  and  so  agi- 
tiited  or  modified  in  its  passage  through  the  windpipe  an4 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  27 

larynx,  as  to  become  distinctly  audible.     The  windpipe  is 
that  tube,  winch  on  touching  the  forepart  of  our  throat  ex- 
ternally, we  feel  hard  and  uneven.     It  conveys  air  into  the 
lungs  for  the  purpose  of  l)reathing  and  speech.     The  top 
or  upper  part  of  the  windpipe  is  called  the  larynx^  consist- 
ing of  four  or  five  cartilages,  that  may  be   expanded  or 
brought  together,  by  the  action  of  certain  muscles  which 
operate  all  at  the  same  time.     In  the  middle  of  the  larynx 
there  is  a  small  opening,  called  the  ,§-/o///.<?,  through  whicli 
the  breath  and  voice  are  conveyed.     This  opcniiig  is  not 
wider  tnan  one  tenth  of  an  inch  ;  and  therefore,  the  breath 
transjiiiited  through  it  from  the  lungs,  must  pass  with 
considerable  velocity.     The  voice  thus  formed,  is  strength- 
ened and  soficncd  by  a  re\crberaUon  from  the  palate  and 
other  hollow  places  in  the  inside  of  the  mouth,  and  nos- 
trils ;  and  as  these  are  better  or  worse  shaped  for  this  re- 
verberation, the  voice  is  said  to  be  more  or  less  agreeable. 
-    If  we  consider  the  many  varieties  of  sound,  which  one 
and  the  same  human  voice  is  capable  of  uttering,  together 
with  the  smallness  of  the  diameter  of  the  glottis  ;  and  re- 
flect, that  the  same  diameter  must  always  produce  the 
same   tone,  and,  consequently,   that  to  every  change  of 
tone  a  correspondent  change  of  diameter  is  necessaiy  ;  we 
must  be  filled  with  admiration  at  the  mechanism  of  these 
parts,  and  the  fineness  of  the  fii)res  that  operate  in  pro- 
ducing effects  so  minute,  so  various,  and  in  their  propor- 
tions so  exactly  unilorm      For  it  admits  of  proof,  that  the 
diameter  of  the  huuian  glottis  is  capable  of  more  than  six- 
ty distinct  degrees  of  contraction  or  enlargement,  by  each 
of  which  a  different  note  is  produced  ;  and  yet  the  great- 
est diameter  of  that  aperture,  as  before  observed,  does  not 
exceed  one  tenth  of  an  inch. 

Speech  is  made  up  of  articulate  voices  ;  and  what  we 
call  articulatio?i,h  performed,  not  by  the  lungs,  windpipe, 
or  larynx,  but  by  the  action  of  the  throat,  palate,  teeth, 
tongue,  lips,  and  nostrils.  Articulation  begins  not,  till  the 
breath,  or  voice,  has  passed  through  the  larynx. 

The  simplest  articulate  voices  are  those  vv'hich  proceed 
from  an  open  mouth,  and  are  by  grammarians  called  vonvcl 
sounds.  In  transmitting  these,  the  aperture  of  the  mouth 
may  be  pretty  large,  or  somewhat  smaller,  or  very  small ; 


28  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR, 

which  is  one  cause  of  the  variety  of  vowels  :  a  particula.L'' 
sound  being  produced  by  each  particular  aperture.  More- 
over, in  passing- through  an  open  mouth,  the  voice  may  be 
geiuly  acted  ufion^  by  the  lips,  or  by  the  tongue  and  palate, 
or  by  the  tongue  and  throut  ;  whence  another  source  of 
variety  in  vowel  sounds 

Thus  ten  or  tv/elve  simple  vowel  sounds  may  be  form- 
ed, agreeably  to  the  plan  in  page  1 1  ;  and  the  learners,  by 
observing  the  position  of  their  mouth,  lips,  tongue.  Sec. 
when  they  are  uttering  the  sounds,  will  perceive  that  va- 
iious  operatiGns  of  these  organs  of  speech,  are  necessary 
to  the  production  of  the  different  vowel  sounds  ;  and  that 
by  minute  variations  they  may  all  be  distinctly  pronounced^ 

When  the  voice,  in  its  passage  through  the  mouth,  is 
totally  interccfiU'd^  or  strongly  coyyifiressed^  theie  is  formed 
a  certain  modification  ol  articulate  sound,  which,  as  ex- 
pressed by  a  character  in  writing,  is  called  a  consonant.... 
Silence  is  the  effect  of  a  total  interception  ;  and  indistinct 
sound,  of  a  strong  compression  ;  and  therefore  a  conso- 
nant is  not  of  itself  a  distinct  articulate  voice  ;  and  its  in- 
fluence in  varying  the  tones  of  language  is  not  clearly  per- 
ceived, unless  it  be  accompanied  by  an  opening  of  the 
mouth,  that  is,  by  a  vowel. 

By  making  the  experiment  with  attention,  the  student 
will  perceive  that  each  of  the  mutes  is  formed  by  the  voice 
being  intercepted,  by  the  lips,  by  the  tongue  and  palate,  or 
by  the  tongue  and  throat ;  and  that  the  semi-vowels  are 
formed  by  the  same  organs  strongly  compressing  the  voice 
in  its  passage,  but  not  totalU^  intercepting  it. 

The  elements  of  language,  according  to  the  differeik 
seats  where  they  are  formed,  or  the  several  organs  of 
speech  chiefly  concerned  in  their  pronunciation,  are  divid- 
ed into  several  classes,  and  denominated  as  follows  :  those 
•are  called  labials^  which  are  formed  by  the  lips  ;  those 
(li:7i/ccs,  tlu.tave  forinedwith  the  teeth;  palatals,  that  are 
formed  v.ith  the  palate;  and  nasals,  that  are  formed  by 
tj-.e  nose. 

.  The  importance  of  obtaining,  in  early  life,  a  clear,  dis- 
tinct, and  accurate  knowledge  of  the  sounds  of  the  first 
principles  of  language,' and  a  wish  to  lead  young  minds  to 
H  further  consideration  of  a  subject  so  curious  and  use|\il, 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  29 

liave  induced  the  compiler  to  bestow  particular  attention 
on  the  preceding  part  of  his  work.  Some  writers  think 
that  these  subjects  do  not  properly  constitute  any  part  of 
grammar  ;  and  consider  them  as  the  exclusive  province 
of  the  spelling-book;  but  if  we  reflect,  that  letters  and 
their  sounds  are  the  constituent  principles  of  that  art, 
which  teaches  us  to  speak  and  write  with  propriety,  and 
that,  in  general,  very  iittle  knowledge  of  their  nature  is 
acquired  by  the  spelling-book,  we  must  admit,  that  they 
properly  belong  to  grammar  ;  and  that  a  rational  consid- 
eration of  these  elementary  principles  of  language,  is  an 
object  that  demands  the  attention  of  the  young  gramma- 
rian. The  sentiments  of  a  very  judicious  and  eminent 
writer  (Quinctiiian)  respecting  this  part  of  grammar,  may, 
perhaps,  be  properly  introduced  on  the  present  occasion. 

'  Let  no  persons  despise,  as  inconsiderable,  the  elements 
of  grammar,  because,  it  may  seem  to  them  a  matter  of 
small  consequence,  to  show  the  distinction  between  vowels 
and  consonants,  and  to  divide  the  latter  into  liquids  and 
mutes.  But  they  who  penetrate  into  the  innermost  parts 
of  this  temple  of  science,  will  there  discover  such  refine- 
ment and  subtility  of  matter,  as  are  not  only  proper  to 
sharpen  the  understandings  of  young  persons,  but  suffi- 
cient to  give  exercise  for  the  most  profound  knowledge 
and  erudition.* 

The  elementary  sounds,  under  their  smallest  combina- 
tion, produce  a  syllable  ;  syllables  properly  combined  pro- 
duce a  vjord  ;  words  duly  combined  produce  a  sentence  i 
and  sentences  properly  combined  produce  an  oration  or 
discourse.  Thus  it  is,  says  Harris,  in  his  Hermes, 
that  to  principles  apparently  so  trivial  as  a  few  plain  ele- 
mentary sounds,  we  owe  that  variety  of  articulate  voices^ 
which  has  been  sufficient  to  explain  the  sentiments  of  so 
innumerable  a  multitude,  as  all  the  present  and  past  gen- 
erations of  men. 

CHAPTER  n. 

OF  SYLLABLES,    AND  THE  RULES  FOR  ARRANGING  THE^.< 

A  SYLLABLE  IS  a  soujicl,  cithcr  simple  or  com- 
pounded, pronounced  by  a  single  impulse  of  the 

C  2 


bV  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

voice,  and  constituting  a  word,  or  part  of  a  word  : 
as,  a,  an,  ant. 

Sptiling  is  the  art  of  rightly  dividing  words 
into  their  syllables,  or  of  expressing  a»  word  by 
its  proper  letters. 

The  follov/ing  are  the  general  rules  for  the  divibion  of 
words  into  syjiables. 

1.  A  single  consonant  between  two  vowels,  must  be 
joined  to  the  latter  syllable  :  as,  de-light,  bri-dah  re- 
source :  except  the  letter  x  ;  as,  ex-ist,  ex-amine  :  and 
except  likewise  words  compounded  ;  as,  up-on,  un-even, 
dis-ease. 

2.  Two  consonants  proper  to  begin  a  word,  must  not  be 
separated  ;  as,  fa-ble,  sti-fle.  But  when  they  come  be- 
tween two  vowels,  and  are  such  as  cannot  begin  a  word/ 
they  must  be  divided  ;  as,  ut-most,  un-der,  in-sect,  er-rotir, 
cof-iin. 

3.  When  three  consonants  meet  in  the  middle  of  a  word, 
if  they  can  begin  a  word,  and  the  preceding  vowel  be  pro- 
nounced long,  they  are  not  to  be  separated  ;  as,  de-throne, 
cle-stroy.  But  when  the  vowel  of  the  preceding  syllable 
is  pronounced  short,  one  of  the  consonants  always  belongs 
to  that  syllable  ;  as,  dis-tract,  dis-prove,  dis-train. 

4.  When  three  or  four  consonants,  which  are  not  pro- 
per to  begin  a  syllable,  meet  between  two  vowels,  such  of 
ihem  as  can  begin  a  syllable  belong  to  the  latter,  the  rest 
to  the  former  syllable  :  as,  ab-stain,  com-plete,  em-broil, 
dan-dier,  dap-ple,  con-strain,  hand-some,  parch-ment. 

5.  Two  vowels,  not  being  a  dipbtliong,  must  be  divided 
iiito  separate  syllables  ;  as,  cru-el,  de-ni-al,  so-ci-e-ty 

6.  Compounded  words  must  be  traced  into  the  simple 
words  of  which  they  are  composed  ;  as,  ice-house,  glow- 
worm, ove!'-power,  never-the-Iess. 

7.  Grammatical,  and  other  particular  terminations,  are 
generally  separated  :  as,  teach-est,  teach-eth,  teach-ing, 
teach-L-r,  confend-est;  great-er,  wretch-ed  ;  good-ness,  free- 
dom, false -hood. 

The  rules  for  dividing  words  into  syllables,  vith  the  rea- 
sons in  support  of  them,  are  expressed  at  large  in  the  au- 
thor's English  Spelling-book,  sixt/i  edition, page  2 IQ — 2 1 5. 


ORTHOGRAPHT.  oi 

CHAPTER  III. 

eF    WORDS    IN    GENERAL,    AND    THE    RULES    FOR 
SPELLING    THEJVI. 

Words  are  articulate  sounds,  used  by  com- 
mon consent,  as  signs  of  our  ideas. 

A  word  of  one  syllable  is  termed  a  Monosylla- 
ble ;  a  word  of  two  syllables,  a  Dissyllable  ;  a 
word  of  three  syllables,  a  Trisyllable  ;  and  a  word 
of  four  or  more  syllables,  a  Polysyllable. 

All  words  are  either  primitive  or  derivative. 

A  primitive  word  is  that  which  cannot  be  re- 
duced to  any  simpler  word  in  the  language  :  as, 
man,  good,  content. 

A  derivative  word  is  that  which  may  be  reduc- 
ed to  another  word  in  English  of  greater  simpli- 
city :  as,  manful,  goodness,  contentment,  York- 
shire.* 

There  are  many  English  words  which,  though  com- 
pounds in  other  languages,  are  to  us  primitives  :  thus, 
circumspect,  circumvent,  circumstance,  delude,  concave, 
complicate,  &c.  primitive  words  in  English,  will  be  found 
derivatives,  when  traced  in  the  Latin  tongue 

The  orthography  of  the  English  language  is  attended 
with  much  uncertainty  and  perplexity.  But  a  consider- 
able part  of  this  inconvenience  may  be  remedied,  by  at- 
tending to  the  genercd  laws  of  formation  ;  and  for  this  end, 
the  icarner  is  presented  v.ith  a  view  of  such  general  max- 
ims in  spelling  primitive  and  derivative  words,  as  have 
been  almost  universally  received. 

RULE    I. 

Monosyllables  ending  with  /,  /,  or  5,  preceded  by  a  sin- 
gle vowel,  double  the  final  consonant  :  as,  staff,  mill,  pass, 
he.  The  only  exceptions  are,  of,  if,  as,  is,  has,  was,  yes, 
his,  this,  us,  and  thus. 

*  A  compound  v/ord  is  included  under  the  h^ad  of  derivative 
words  :  as,  penknife,  teacup,  looking-g'lass  -y  may  be  reduced  to 
Qtlier  words  of  greater  simplicity. 


32  ENGLISH    GRAMMAfi. 

RULE    II. 

Monosyllables  ending  with  any  consonant  buty,  /,  or  5, 
and  preceded  by  a  single  vowel,  never  double  the  final 
consonant ;  exceptmg  add,  ebb,  butt,  egg,  odd,  err,  inn, 
bunn,  purr,  and  buzz. 

RULE    III. 

Words  ending  with  y,  preceded  by  a  consonant,  form 
the  plurals  of  nouns,  the  persons  of  verbs,  verbal  nouns, 
past  participles,  comparatives,  and  superlatives,  by  chang- 
ing y  into  i  :  as,  spy,  spies  ;  I  cany,  thou  carriest ;  he  car- 
rieth,  or  carries ;  carrier,  carried  j  happy,  happier,  hap- 
piest. 

The  present  participle  in  i?jg,  retains  the  y  that  i  may 
not  be  doubled  ;  as,  carry,  carrying  ;  bury,  burying,  &c. 

But  yy  preceded  by  a  vowel,  in  such  instances  as  the 
above,  is  not  changed  ;  as,  boy,  boys  :  I  cloy,  he  cloys, 
cloyed.  Sec.  ;  except  in  lay,  pay,  and  say  ,  from  which  are 
formed,  laid,  paid,  and  said  ;  and  their  compounds,  unlaid^ 
unpaid,  unsaid,  &;c. 

RULE    IV. 

Words  ending  with  y,  preceded  by  a  consonant,  upon 
assuming  an  additional  syllable  beginning  with  a  conso- 
nant, commonly  change  y  into  /  ;  as,  happy,  happily,  hap- 
piness. But  when  y  is  preceded  by  a  vowel,  it  is  very 
rarely  changed  in  the  additional  syllable  :  as,  coy,  coyly  ; 
boy,  boyish,  boyhood  ;  annoy,  annoyer,  annoyance  ;  joy, 
joyless,  joyful. 

RULE   V. 

Monosyllables,  and  words  accented  on  the  last  syllable, 
ending  with  a  single  consonant  preceded  by  a  single  vow- 
el, double  that  consonant,  when  they  take  another  syllable 
beginning  with  a  vowel :  as,  wit,  witty  -,  thin,  thinnish  ;  to 
abet,  an  abettor  ;  to  begin,  a  beginner. 

But  if  a  di[)hthong  precedes,  or  the  accent  is  on  the  pre- 
ceding syllable,  the  consonant  remains  single  :  as,  to  toil, 
toiling  ;  to  offer,  an  offering ;  maid,  maiden,  &c. 

RULE  VI. 

Words  ending  with  any  double  lietter  but  /,  and  taking 
ness,  lessy  ly^  ovful^  after  them,  preserve  the  letter  double  ; 
as,  harmlessness,  carelessness,  carelessly,  stiffly,  success- 
ful, distressful)  &c.    But  those  words  which  end  >Yith  dou- 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  SB 

hie  /,  and  take  ncsa,  less,  ly,  or  ful,  after  them,  generally 
©mit  one  /;  as,  fulness,  skillness,  fully,  skilful,  8cc. 

RULE  \  II. 

JVe&s,  less,  ly,  and/w/,  added  to  words  ending  with  silent 
e,  do  not  cut  it  off :  as,  paleness,  guileness,  closely,  peace- 
ful ;  except  in  a  few  words  ;  as,  duly,  truly,  awful. 
RULE  vm. 

AIc?it,  added  to  words  ending  with  silent  e,  generally 
preserves  the  e  from  elision  ;  as,  abatement,  chastisement, 
incitement,  fee.  The  words  judgment,  abridgment,  ac- 
knowledgment, are  d^iations  from  the  rule. 

Like  other  ternunations,  me?it  changes  y  into  i,  when 
preceded  by  a  consonant :  as,  accompany,  accompaniment ; 
merry,  merriment. 

RULE    IX. 

^ble  and  idle,  when  incorporated  into  words  eriding  with 
silent  e,  almost  always  cut  it  off:  as,  blame,  blamable  ; 
cure,  curable  ;  sense,  sensible,  &c.  but  it'  c  or  j*  soft  comes 
before  e  in  the  original  word,  the  e  is  then  preserved  in 
words  compounded  with  able ;  as,  change,  changeable  ; 
peace,  peaceable,  &c. 

RULE  X. 

Whent'zn^  or  ish  is  added  to  words  ending  with  silent  c, 
thee  is  almost  univeisally  omitted :  as,  place,  placing ; 
lodge,  lodging  j  slave,  slavish  ;  prude,  prudish. 

RULE  XI. 

Compound  words  are  generally  spelled  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  simple  words  o'f  which  they  arc  lormed ; 
as  football,  windmill,  bulldog,  thereby,  hereafter. 

The  orthography  of  a  great  nunibfer  of  English  words, 
is  far  from  being  uniform,  even  amongst  writers  of  dis- 
tinction. Thus,  honour  and  honor,  inquire  and  enquiref 
JKgotiate  and  ncgociate,  control  and  controxd,  expcmse  and 
exfience,  allege  and  alledge,  surfirine  and  surfirize,  comfilete 
and  conipL'at^  connexion  and  connection,  abridgment  and 
abridgement,  and  many  other  orthographical  variations,  are 
to  be  met  with  in  the  best' modern  publications.  Some 
authoi  ity  for  deciding  differences  of  this  nature,  appears  to 
be  necessary  ;  and  where  can  we  find  one  of  equal  preten- 
sions with  Dr.  Johnson's  Dictionary  ?  though  a  few  of  his 
elecisipus  do  not  appear  to  be  warranted  by  the  principles 


54  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

of  etymology  and  analogy,  the  stable  foundations  of  his 
improvements — *  As  the  weight  of  truth  and  reason  (says 
Narcs  in  his  '  Elements  of  Orthoepy')  is  irresistible,  Dr. 
Johnson's  Dictionary  has  nearly  fixed  the  external  form  of 
©ur  language.  Indeed,  so  convenient  is  it  to  have  one  ac- 
knowledged standard  to  recur  to  ;  so  much  preferable,  m 
matters  of  this  nature,  is  a  trifling  degree  of  irregularity, 
to  a  continual  change,  and  fruitless  pursuit  of  unattainable 
perfection  ;  that  it  is  earnestly  to  be  hoped,  that  no  author 
will  henceforth,  on  light  grounds,  be  tempted  to  innovate.' 
This  Dictionary,  however,  contains  some  orthographical 
inconsistencies,  which  ought  to  be  rectified  :  such  as,  im- 
■jnovable  movcadie,  chastehj  chafitJicss^fertilcnesfifertily-)  sh'- 
ness  shily^  fearlessly  f cur lessness^  necdlessricss  neccUesly.  If 
these,  and  similar  irregularities,  were  corrected  by  spell- 
ing the  words  analogically,  according  to  the  first  word  in 
each  part  of  the  series,  and  agreeably  to  the  general  rules 
of  spelling,  the  Dictionary  would  doubtless,  in  these  res- 
pects, be  improved. 


PART  II. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

CHAPTER  I. 

A    GENERAL    VIEW    OF    THE    PARTS    OF    SPEECH. 

The  second  part  of  gram  mar  is  etymology  : 
which  treats  of  the  difterent  sorts  of  words,  their 
various  modifications,  and  their  derivation. 

There  are,  in  English,  nine  sorts  of  words,  or, 
as  they  are  commonly  cailcd,  parts  of  speech  : 
namely,  the  article',  the  su'bst  vntive  or 
Nou.N,    the    ADjKCTivE,    thc    pronoun,    die 

VLK  B,  th(-  adverb,  the  PREPOSITION,  the  CON- 

jUNCTioNj  and  the  interjection. 


ETYMOLOGY.  35 

i.  An  article  is  a  word  prefixed  to  substan- 
tives, to  point  them  out,  and  to  show  how  Ikr 
their  signification  extends  :  as,  a  garden,  an 
eagle,  the  worn m. 

'2,  A  substantive  or  noun  is  the  name  of  any 
thing  that  exists,  or  of  which  we  have  any  no- 
tion :  as,  London^  mafi,  virtut^. 

A  substantive  may,  in  general,  be  distinguished  by  its 
taking  an  article  before  it,  or  by  its  making  sense  of  it- 
self ;  as,  a  book^  the  *««,  an  apple  j  temperance^  industry-^ 
chastity. 

3.  An  Adjective  is  a  word  added  to  a  substan- 
tive, to  express  its  quality  :  as,  '  An  industrious 
man;  Vi  virtuous  wonvdn*"* 

An  Adjective  may  be  known  by  its  making  sense  with 
the  addition  of  the  word  thi7ig  :  as,  a  good  thing  :  a  bad 
thing  :  or  of  any  particular  substantive  ;  as,  a  siueet  ap- 
ple, a  pleasant  prospect,  a  lively  boy. 

4.  A  Pronoun  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a 
noun,  to  avoid  the  too  frequent  repetition  of  the 
same  word  :  as,  '  The  man  is  happy ;  he  is  be- 
nevolent ;  he  is  useful.' 

5.  A  Verb  is  a  word  which  signifies  to  be,  to 
DO,  or  to  suFPER  :  as,  *  I  am  ;  I  rule  ;  I  am 
TuleiV 

A  Verb  may  generally  be  distinguished,  by  its  making 
sense  with  any  of  the  personal  pronouns,  or  the  woi'd  to 
before  it  :  as,  I  nvalky  he  playsyihty  write  ;  or,  to  ivalk^  to 
playy  to  ivrite. 

6.  An  Adverb  is  a  part  of  speech  joined  to  a 
verb,  an  adjective,  and  sometimes  to  another  ad- 
verb, to  express  some  quality  or  circumstance 
respecting  it :  as,  '  He  reads  well ;  si  truly  good 
man  ;  he  writes  very  correctly.'' 

An  Adverb  may  be  generally  known,  by  its  answering; 
to  the  question,  How  ?  how  much  ?  when  ?  or  where  ?  as^ 


36'  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

in  the  phrase  '  He  reads  correctly^*  the  answer  to  the 
question,  How  does  he  read  ?  is,  correctly. 

7.  Prepositions  serve  to  Connect  words  with 
one  another,  and  to  show  the  relation  between 
them:  as,  '  He  w^wt  from  London  to  York;' 
*  she  is  above  disguise  ; '  '  they  are  supported  by 
industr}'.' 

A  Preposition  may  be  known  by  its  admitting  after  it  a 
personal  pronoun,  in  the  objective  case  ;  as,  wit h^  for ^  to, 
8cc.  will  allow  the  objective  case  after  them  ;  with  him, 
for  her,  to  them,  &c. 

8.  A  Conjunction  is  a  part  of  speech  that  is 
chiefly  used  to  connect  sentences ;  so  as,  out  of 
two  or  more  sentences,  to  make  but  one :  it 
sometimes  connects  otjly  words  :  as,  *  Thou  and 
he  are  happy,  because  you  are  good.'  '  Two  and 
three  are  live.' 

9.  Interjections  are  words  thrown  in  between 
the  parts  of  a  sentence,  to  express  the  passions 
or  emotions  of  the  speaker  :  as,  *  O  virtue!  how 
amiable  thou  art !' 

The  observations  which  have  been  made,  to  aid  learn- 
ers in  distinguishing^  the  parts  of  speech  fmm  one  another, 
may  afford  them  some  small  assistance  ;  but  it  will  certain- 
ly be  much  more  instructive,  to  distinguish  them  by  the* 
definitions,  and  an  accurate  knowledge  of  their  nature. 

In  the  following  passage,  all  the  parts  of  speech  are  ex- 
/Bmplified  : 

1  2T  2512  472  8 

The  power  of  speech  is  a  faculty  peculiar  to  man  ;  and 

5  5  7373  4  2  7x 

w  its  bestowed  on  liim  by  his  beneficent  Creator,  for  the 

4  8G  4  2  89  6  6C 

greatest  and  most  excellent  uses  ;  but  alas  !  how  often  do 

3  5  3     7147  2 

we  pervert  it  to  the  worst  of  purposes  ! 

In  the  foregoing  sentence,  the  words  the,  a,  are  articles  ; 
flower,  (speech,  faculty,  man.  Creator,  uses,  purfiOHei^,  are 
substantives  ;  him,  his,  we,  it,  are  pronouns  ;  fieculiar,  be- 
neficent, greatest,  excellent,  worst,  are  adjectives ;  /*,  was^ 


ETYMOLOGY.  57' 

hestoived.,  do,  fien^ert,  are  verbs  ;  most,  hoit),  often,  are  ad- 
verbs \  of,  to,  071,  by,  for,  are  prei)ositions  ;  and,  but,  are 
conjunctions  ;  and  alas  is  an  interjection. 

The  number  of  the  difterent  sorts  of  words,  or  of  the 
parts  of  speech,  has  been  variously  reckoned  by  different 
grammarians.  Some  have  enumerated  ten,  making  the 
participle  a  distinct  part  ;  some  eight,  excludirjg  the  par- 
ticiple, and  ranking-  the  adjective  under  the  noun  ;  some 
four,  and  others  only  two  (the  noun  and  the  -verb)  sup- 
posing the  rest  to  be  contained  in  the  parts  of  their  divi- 
sion. We  have  followed  those  authors,  who  appear  to 
have  given  them  the  most  natural  and  intelligible  distri- 
bution. Some  remarks  on  the  division  made  by  the  le^iii- 
ed  Home  Tooke,  are  contained  in  the  first  section  of  the 
eleventh  chapter  of  Etymology. 

The  interjection,  indeed,  seems  scarcely  worthy  of  be- 
ing considered  as  a  part  of  artificial  language  or  speech, 
being  rather  a  branch  of  that  natural  language,  which  we 
possess  in  common  with  the  brute  creation,  and  by  which 
we  express  the  sudden  emotions  and  pussions  that  actuate 
our  frame.  But,  as  it  is  used  in  written  as  well  as  oral 
language,  it  may,  in  some  measure,  be  deemed  a  part  of 
speech.  It  is,  with  us,  a  virtual  sentence,  in  which  the 
noun  and  verb  are  concealed  under  an  imperfect  or  indi- 
gested word. 


CHAPTER  n. 

OF    THE    ARTICLES, 

An  Article  is  a  word  prefixed  to  substantives', 
to  point  tliem  out,  and  to  show  howlar  their  sig- 
nification extends  ;  as,  a  garden,  an  eagle,  the 
woman. 

In  English,  there  are  but  tw^o  articles,  a  and 
the:  a  becomes  an  before  a  vowel, ^-  and  before 
a  silent  h  ;  as,  an  acorn,  an  hour.     But  if  the  h 

*  A  instead  o^  an  is  now  used  before  words  beg-iiining  with 
u  long-.  See  pag-e  24,  letter  U.  It  is  also  used  before  one  ,-  as, 
TTiunv  a  ore. 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

be  sounded,  the  a  only  is  to  be  used  ;  as,  a  hand, 
a  heart,  a  highway. 

The  inattention  of  writers  and  printers  to  this  necessa- 
ry distiriction,  has  occasioned  the  frequent  use  oi  an  be- 
fore lu  when  it  is  to  be  pronounced  ;  and  this  circumstance, 
more  than  any  other,  has  probably  contributed  to  that  in- 
distinct utterance,  or  total  omission,  of  the  sound  signified 
by  this  letter,  which  very  often  occurs  amongst  readers 
and  speakers.  Jn  horse,  an  husband,  an  herald,  an  heath- 
en, and  many  similar  associations,  are  frequently  to  be 
found  in  works  of  taste  and  merit.  To  remedy  this  evil, 
readers  should  be  taught  to  omit,  in  all  similar  cases,  the 
sound  of  the  w,  and  to  give  the  h  its  full  pronunciation. 

A  or  an  is  styled  the  indefinite  article  :  it  is 
used  in  a  vague  sense  to  point  out  one  single 
thing  of  the  kind,  in  other  respects  indetermi^ 
nate  :  as,  '  Give  me  a  book  ;  '  Bring  me  an 
apple.' 

The  is  called  the  definite  article ;  because  it 
ascertains  what  particular  thing  or  things  are 
meant :  as,  '  Give  me  the  book  ; '  *  Bring  me 
the  apples  ;'  meaning  some  book,  or  apples,  re- 
ferred to. 

A  substantive  without  any  article  to  limit  it,  is 
generally  taken  in  its  widest  sense  :  as,  '  A  can- 
did temper  is  proper  for  man  ;'  that  is,  for  all 
mankind. 

The  peculiar  use  and  importance,  of  the  articles  will  be 
seen  in  the  following  examples  ;  *  The  son  of  a  king — 
the  son  of  the  king — a  son  of  the  king.  Each  of  these 
three  phrases  has  an  entirely  different  meaning,  through 
the  different  application  of  the  articles  a  and  the. 

'  Thou  art  a  man,*  is  a  very  general  and  harmless  posi- 
tion ;  but,  *  Thou  art  the  man,*  (as  Nathan  said  to  Da- 
vid) is  an  assertion  capable  of  striking  terror  and  remorse 
i^nto  the  heart. 

The  article  is  omitted  before  nouns  that  imply  the  dif- 
ferent virtues,  vices,  passions,  qualities,  sciences,  arts,  me- 


ETYMOLOGY.  59 

tals,  herbs,  Sec.  as,  prudence  is  commendable  ;  falsehood 
is  odious  :  anger  ought  to  be  avoided  ;*  he.  It  is  not  pre- 
fixed to  a  proper  name  ;  as,  '  Alexander,'  (because  that  of 
itself  denotes  a  determinate  individual  or  particular  thing) 
except  for  the  sake  of  distinguishing  a  particular  family  : 
as,  '  He  is  a  Howard,  or  of  the  family  of  the  Howards  ;* 
or  by  way  of  eminence  :  as, '  Every  man  is  not  a  Newton ;' 
*  He  has  the  courage  of  a;z  Achilles  :*  or  when  some  noun 
is  understood  ;  '  He  sailed  down  the  (river)  Thames,  in 
the  (ship)  Britannia. 

When  an  adjective  is  used  with  the  noun  to  which  the 
article  relates,  it  is  placed  between  the  article  and  the 
noun  ;  as,  *  a  good  miin,'  '  an  agreeable  woman,*  '  the  dest 
friend.'  On  some  occasions,  however,  the  adjective  pre- 
cedes a  or  an  ;  as,  '  such  a  shame,*  '  as  great  a  man  as 
Alexander,'  '  too  careless  an  author.* 

The  indefinite  article  can  be  joined  to  substantives  in 
the  singular  number  only  ;  the  definite  article  may  be 
joined  also  "to  plurals. 

But  there  appears  to  be  a  remarkable  exception  to  thus 
rule,  in  the  use  of  the  adjectives y<?w  and  many  (the  latter 
chiefly  with  the  \\ov([  great  before  it)  which,  though  joined 
with  plural  substantives,  yet  admit  of  the  singular  article 
a  :  as,  afeiv  men  ;  a  great  many  men. 

The  reason  of  it  is  manifest,  from  the  effect  which  the 
article  has  in  these  phrases ;  it  means  a  small  or  great 
number  collectively  taken,  and  therefore  gives  the  idea  of 
a  whole,  that  is,  of  unity.  Thus  likewise,  a  dozen,  a  score, 
a  bundled,  or  a  thousand,  is  one  whole  number,  an  aggre- 
gate of  many  collectively  taken  ;  and  therefore  still  re- 
tains the  article  a,  though  joined  as  an  tidjective  to  a  plu- 
ral substantive  :  as,  a  hundred  years,  Sec. 

The  hidefinite  article  is  sometimes  placed  between  the 
adjectives  many^  and  a  singular  noun  :  as, 
'  Full  7riany  a  gem  of  purest  ray  serene. 
The  dark  unfathom'd  caves  of  ocean  bear  ; 
Full  many  a  flow' r  is  born  to  blush  unseen, 
And  waste  its  sweetness  on  the  desert  air.' 

In  these  lines,  the  -^Xiv^^^^^manya gem  and  ?nany  ajlonu'r, 
refer  to  many  gems  and  many  flowers,  separately,  not  col- 
lectively considered. 


'49  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR* 

The  definite  article  the  is  frequently  applied  to  adveros 
in  the  comparative  and  superlative  degree  :  and  its  effect 
is,  to  mark  ihe  deg-ree  the  more  strongly,  and  to  define  it 
the  more  precisely  ;  as,  '  The  more  I  examine  it,  the  bet- 
ter I  hke  it.     1  like  this  the  least  of  any.' 

CHAPTER  III. 

OF   SUBSTANTIVES. 

vSECTION  I. 

Of  Substantives  in  general. 

A  Su  i].-^  T  A  N  T I V  E  or  Noun  is  the  name  of  any 
tiling  that  exists,  or  of  which  we  have  any  no- 
tion :  as,  London^  man^  virtue. 

Substantives  are  either  proper  or  common. 

Proper  names  or  substantives,  are  the  names 
appropriated  to  individuals  :  as,  George,  Lon- 
don, Thames. 

Common  names  or  substantives,  stand  for 
kinds  containing  many  sorts,  or  for  sorts  contain- 
ing many  individuals  under  them  ;  as,  animal, 
man,  tree,  &:c. 

When  proper  names  have  an  article  annexed 
to  them,  they  are  used  as  common  names  ;  as, 
'  He  is  the  Cicero  of  his  age ;  he  is  reading  the 
lives  of  the  Twelve  desars,^ 

Common  names  may  also  be  used  to  signify 
iiidividuals,  by  the  addition  of  articles  or  pro- 
roans  :  as,  '  The  boy  is  studious  ;  that  girl  is 
discreet.'-^ 

To  substantives  belong  gender,  number,  and 
case  ;  and  they  are  all  of  the  third  person,  wiien 

*  Nouns  nir;y  also  be  divided  into  the  following-  classes  :  Cullec- 
live  nounij,  or  nouns  of  mu'titude  ;  as,  the  people,  the  parlia- 
ment, tlie  artny  :  .-Ibsiract  nouns,  or  the  luunes  of  qualities  ab- 
stracted from  their  substances  ;  as,  knowleui^-e,  g'oodnesf,  white- 
ness :  Vt'ibal  or  participle  nouns  ;  as,  begimiing-,  reading-,  writing. 


ETYMOLOGY.  41 

Spoken  of^  and  of  the  second  when  spoken  to  : 
as,  '  Blessings  attend  us  on  every  side ;  be 
grateful,  children  of  men  ! '  that  is,  t/e  children 
of  men. 

SFXTION  2. 

Of  Gender. 

Gender  is  the  distinction  of  nouns,  with  re- 
gard to  sex.  There  are  three  genders,  the  mas- 
culine, the  FEMININE,  and  the  neui  er. 

The  Masculine  Gender  denotes  annnals  of  the 
male  kind  :  as,  a  man,  a  horse,  a  bull. 

The  Feminine  Gender  signifies  animals  of  the 
female  kind  :  as,  a  woman,  a  duck,  a  hen. 

The  Neuter  Gender  denotes  objects  which 
are  neither  males  nor  females  :  as,  a  field,  a  house, 
a  garden. 

Some  substantives,  naturally  neuter,  are  by  a 
figure  of  speech,  converted  into  the  masculine 
or  feminine  gender  :  as,  when  we  say  of  the  sun, 
he  is  setting  ;  and  of  a  ship,  she  sails  well. 

Figurativety,  in  the  English  tongue,  we  commonly  give 
the  masculine  gender  to  nouns  which  are  conspicuous  for 
the  attributes  of  imparting  or  communicating,  and  which 
are  by  nature  strong  and  efficacious.  Those,  again,  are 
made  feminine,  which  are  conspicuous  for  the  attributes 
of  contciining  or  bringing  forth,  or  which  are  peculiarly 
beautiful  or  amiable  Upon  these  principles,  the  sun  is 
said  to  be  masculine ;  and  the  moon,  being  the  receptacle 
of  the  sun's  light,  to  be  femimne.  The  earth  is  generally 
feminine.  A  ship,  a  country,  a  city,  Sec.  are  likewise 
made  feminine,  being  receivers  or  containers.  Time  is 
alu'uys  masculine,  on  account  of  its  mighty  efficacy.  Vir- 
tue is  feminine  from  its  beauty,  and  its  being  the  object  of 
love.     Fortune  and  the  church  are  generally  put  in  the 


ferainine  gender. 


D  2 


42 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR 


The  English  language  has  three  methods,  of  distinguisli- 
ing  the  sex,  viz. 

1.  By  different  words  :  as 
Female. 
Maid 
Sow 
Girl 


Male. 
Bachelor 
Boar 
Boy 
Brother 
Buck 
Bull 

Bullock  or 
Steer 
Cock 
Dog 
Drake 

Faiiier 

Friar 

Gauder 

Horse 


Sister 

Doe 

Cow 

Heifer 


Male 

Husband 

King 

Lad' 

Lord 

Man 

Master 

Mi^'or 

N(-phev7 

Ram 


Singer 

Sloven 

Son 

Stag 

Uncle 

AVizard 


Female. 

Wife 

Queen 

Lass 

Lady 

Woman 

Mistress 

Spawner 

Niece 

Ewe 
C  Songstress 
\  or  Singer 

Slut 

Daughter 

Hind 

Aunt 

Witch 


Hen 

Bitch 

Duck 

Coumess 

Mother 

Nun 

Goose 

Koe 

Mare 
2.  By  a  difference  of  termination  :  as 

Abbot  Abbess  Landgrave  I-.andgravine 

Actor  Actress  Lion  Lioness 

Administrator  Administratrix  Marquis  Marchioness 

Adulterer        Aduitress  Master  Mistress 

Ambassador     Ambassadress  Mayor  Mayoress 

Arbiter  Arbitress  Pairon  Patroness 

Baron  Baroness  Peer  Peeress 

Bridegroom     Bride  Poet  Poetess 

Benefactor       Benefactress  Priest  Priestess 

Caterer  Cateress  Prince  Princess- 

Ghanter  Chantress  Piior  Prioress 

Conductor       Conductress  Prophet  Prophetess 

Count  Countess  Protector  Protectress 

Deacon  Deaconess  Shepherd  Shepherdess 

Duke  Duchess  Songster  Songstress 

Elector  Elcctress  Sorcerer  Sorceress 

Emperor  Empress  e   ,  C  Sultaness 

Enciiuriter        Enchantress         ^^  ^Sultana 

Executor         Executrix  Tiger  Tigress 

Governor        Governess  Traitor  Traitress 


ETYMOLOGY. 

I 

Male. 

Female. 

Male. 

Female. 

Heir 

Heiress 

Tutor 

Tutoress 

Hero 

Heroine 

Viscount 

Viscountess 

Hunter 

Huntress 

Votary- 

Votaress 

Host 

Hostess 

Widower 

Widow 

Jew 

Jewess 

43 


3.  By  a  noun,  pronoun,  or  adjective,  being  firefixed  to 
the  substantive  :  as 

A  cock-sparrow  A  lien-sparrow 

A  man-servant  A  maid-servant 

A  he-goat  A  she-goat 

A  he -bear  A  she -bear 

A  male-child  A  female-child 

Male  descendants  Female  descendants. 

It  sometimes  happens,  that  the  sarae  noun  is  either 
masculine  or  feminine.  The  words  parent^  child^  cousin^ 
friend^  neighbour^  servant^  and  several  others,  are  used  in- 
differently for  males  or  females. 

Nouns  v/ith  variable  terminations  contribute  to  concise- 
ness and  perspicuity  of  expression.  We  have  only  a  suf- 
itcient  number  of  them  to  make  us  feel  our  want  ;  for 
when  we  say  of  a  woman,  she  is  a  pliilosopher,  an  astrono- 
mer, a  builder,  a  weaver,  we  perceive  an  impropriety  in 
the  termination,  which  we  cannot  avoid  ;  but  we  can  say, 
that  she  is  a  botanist,  a  student,  a  witness,  a  scholar,  an 
orphan,  a  companion,  because  these  terminations  have  not 
annexed  to  them  tlie  notion  of  sex. 

SECTION  3. 

OfJVumber. 

Number  is  the  consideration  of  an  object,  as 
one  or  more. 

Substantives  are  of  two  numbers,  the  singular 
and  the  plural. 

The  singular  number  expresses  but  one  ob- 
ject ;  as,  a  chair,  a  table. 

The  plural  number  hignifies  more  objects  than 
one  ;  as,  chairs,  tables.  ^  / 

Some  nouns,  from  thv/  nature  of  the  things 
vvhich  they  express,  are  used  only  in  the  singu- 


44  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

lar  form ;  as,  wheat,  pitch,  gold,  sloth,  pride, 
&c.  ;  others,  only  in  the  plural  form  ;  as,  bel- 
lows, scissors,  lungs,  riches,  &c. 

Some  words  are  the  same  in  both  numbers  ; 
as,  deer,  sheep,  swine,  &c. 

The  plural  number  of  nouns  is  generally  form- 
ed by  adding  s  to  the  singular :  as,  dove,  doves ; 
face,  faces  ;  thought,  thoughts.  But  when  the 
substantive  singular  ends  in  x,  ch  soft,  sh^  ss,  or 
s,  we  add  es  in  the  plural  :  as,  box,  boxes  ; 
church,  churches ;  lash,  lashes  ;  kiss,  kisses  ; 
rebus,  rebusses.  If  the  singular  ends  in  ch  hard, 
the  plural  is  formed  by  adding  s,  as,  monarch, 
monarchs  ;  distich,  distichs. 

Nouns  which  end  in  o,  have  sometimes  es  added  to  the 
plural ;  as,  cargo,  echo,  hero,  negro,  manifesto,  potato, 
volcano,  wo :  and  sometimes  only  « j  as,  folio,  nuncio, 
punctilio,  seraglio. 

Nnuns  ending  in  fy  or  fe^  are  rendered  plural  by  the 
change  of  those  terminations  into  ves  :  as,  loaf,  loaves  ; 
half,  halves  ;  wife,  wives  ;  except  grief,  relief,  reproof, 
and  several  others,  which  form  the  plural  by  the  addition 
of  s.  Those  which  end  in^,  have  the  regular  plural :  as, 
ruff,  ruffs  ;  except  staff,  staves. 

Nouns  which  have  y  in  the  singular,  with  no  other 
vowel  in  the  same  syllable,  change  it  into  ies  in  the  plural ; 
as,  beauty,  beauties  ;  fly,  flies.  But  the  y  is  not  changed, 
when  there  is  another  vowel  in  the  syllable  :  as,  key,  keys  J 
delay,  delays  ;  attorney,  attorneys. 

Some  nouiis  become  plural  by  changing  the  a  of  the 
singular  into  e  :  as,  man,  men  ;  woman,  women  ;  alder- 
man, aldermen.  The  words,  ox  and  child,  form  oxen  and 
children;  brother,  makes  either  brothers,  or  biethren. 
Sometimes  the  diphthong  oo  is  changed  into  ee  in  ihe 
plural :  as,  foot,  feet ;  goose,  geese  ;  tooth,  teeth.  Louse 
and  mouse  make  lice  and  mice.  Penny  makes  pence,  or 
pennies,  when  the  coin  i:  meant ;  die,  dice  (for  play  ;) 
die,  dies  (for  coining.)       )-' 


ETYMOLOGY. 


45 


It  is  agreeably  to  analogy,  and  the  practice  of  the  gene- 
rality of  con-ect  writers,  to  construe  the  following  words 
as  plural  nouns  ;  fmins^  Hches^alms  :  and  also  mathematicsy 
lyieta/i.hysics^  fioUticfi^  ethics^  ofitics^  fineumaticsy  with  other 
similar  names  of  sciences. 

Dr.  Johnson  says  that  the  adjective  much  is  sometimeis 
a  tenn  of  number,  as  well  as  of  quantiiy.  This  may  ac- 
count for  the  instances  we  meet  with  of  its  associating 
with  pains  as  a  plural  noun  :  as,  *  much  pains.*  The  con- 
nexion, however,  is  not  to  be  recommended. 

The  word  neivs  is  now  almost  universally  considered  as 
belonging  to  the  singular  number. 

The  noun  means  is  used  both  in  the  singular  and  the 
plural  number. 

The  follov.ing  words,  v.hich  have  been  adopted  from 
the  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Lathi  languages,  are  thus  distin- 
guished, with  respect  to  number. 

Singular.  Plural,  Singular. 

Cherub  Cherubim        Datum 

Seraph  Seraphim         Effluvium 

Antithesis        Antitheses       T7r,/-r^rv,?,,« 
Automaton 

Erratum 

Genius 

Genus 


Basis 

Crisis 
Criterion 
Diaeresis 
Ellipsis 
Emphasis 
Hypothesis 
Metamor- 
phosis 


Automata 
Bases 
Crises 
Criteria 
Diserescs 
Ellipses 
Emphases 
Hypotheses 
Metamor- 
phoses 


Phoenomenon  Phoenomena 


Inde:^ 

Lamina 
Medium 
Magus 
Memoran- 
dum 


Appendix 

Arcanum 
Axis 

Calx 


Appendices  orRadius 
Appendixes  Stamen 
Arcana  Stratum 

Axes  Vortex 

Calces 


Plural. 
Data 

Effluvia 

Encomia  or 

Encomiums 

Errata 

Genii* 

Genera 

Indices  or 

Indexes! 

Lamin;]e 

Media 

Magi 

Memoranda  or 

eiriorandums 
i^adii 
S»  amina 
Strata 
Vortices 


Ci\] 


Genii 


,  when  denoting  aerial  spirits  ;   GeniuseSf  when  signify- 
ing persons  of  genius. 

f  Inderes  when  it  signifies  pointers,  or  Tables  of  contents;  In- 
dices,  w^en  referring  to  Algebraic  quantitie.**, 


46  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Some  words,  derived  from  the  learned  languages,  ar"^ 
confined  to  the  plural  number :  as,  antipodes,  credenda, 
literati,  minutiae. 

The  following  nouns  being,  in  Latin,  both  singular  and 
plural,  are  used  in  the  same  manner  when  adopted  into 
«ur  tongue  :  hiatus,  apparatus,  series,  species. 

SECTION  4. 
Of  Case. 

In  English,  substantives  have  three  cases,  the 
nominative,  the  possessive,  and  the  objective.* 

The  nominative  case  simply  expresses  the 
name  of  a  thing,  or  the  subject  of  the  verb  :  as, 
'  The  boy  plays  ;'  '  The  girls  learn.' 

The  possessive  case  expresses  the  relation  of 
property  or  possession  ;  and  has  an  apostrophe 
with  the  letter  $  coming  after  it  :  as,  '  The 
scholar's  duty;'  '  My  father's  house.' 

When  the  plural  ends  in  s,  the  other  s  is  omit- 
ted, but  the  apostrophe  is  retained  :  as,  '  On 
eagles'  wings  ;'  '  The  drapers'  company.' 

Sometimes  also,  when  the  singular  terminates 
in  ss,  the  apostrophic  s  is  not  added  :  as,  ^  For 
goodness'  sake  ;'  '  For  righteousness'  sake.' 

The  objective  case  expresses  the  object  of  an 
action,  or  of  a  relation  ;  and  generally  follows  a 
verb  active,  or  a  preposition  ;  as,  '  John  assists 
Charles  ;'   '  They  live  in  London,' 

English  substantives  are  declined  in  the  follow- 
ing manner : 

Sing-uiar.  Pi'iral. 

Nominative  Case,       A  mother.         Mothers. 
Possessive  Case.  A  m^other's.       Mothers'. 

*  The  possessive  is  sometimes  called  tlie  g-enitive  case;  and 
the  objective  the  accusative. 


ETYMOLOGY 


47 


Objective  Case, 
Nominative  Case, 
Possessive  Case, 
Objective  Case, 


singular.  Plural. 

A  mother.         Mothers. 
The  man.  The  men. 

The  man's.       The  men's. 
The  man.  The  men. 

The  English  language,  to  express  different  connexions 
and  relations  of  one  thing  to  another,  uses,  for  the  most 
part,  prepositions.  The  Greek  and  Latin  among  the  an- 
cient, and  some  too  among  the  modern  languages,  as  the 
German,  vaiy  the  termination  or  ending  of  the  substantive, 
to  answer  the  same  purpose  ;  an  example  of  which,  in 
the  Latin,  is  inserted,  as  explanatory  of  the  nature  and  use 
of  cases,  viz. 

Singular. 
Nominative.  Dominus,  A  Lord. 

Genitive.  Domini,  Lord's,  of  a  Lord. 

Dative.  Domino,  To  a  Lord. 

Accusative.  Dominum,  A  Lord. 

Vocative.  Domine,  O  Lord. 

Ablative.  Domino,  By  a  Lord. 

Plural. 

J\''ominative.  Domini,  Lords. 

Genitive.  Dominoru:^!,  Lords',  of  Lords. 

Dative.  Dominis,  To  Lords. 

Accusative.  Dominos,  Lords. 

Vocative.  Domini,  O  Lords. 

Ablative.  Dominis,  By  Lords. 

Some  writers  think,  that  the  relations  signified  by  the 
addition  of  articles  and  prepositions  to  the  noun,  may  pro- 
perly be  denominated  cases,  in  English  :  and  that,  on  this 
principle,  there  are,  in  our  language,  as  many  cases  as  in 
the  Latin  tongue.  But  to  this  mode  of  forming  cases  for 
our  substantives,  there  are  strong  objections.  It  would, 
indeed,  be  a  formal  and  useless  arrangement  of  nouns,  ar- 
ticles, and  prepositions.  If  an  arrangement  of  this  nature 
were  to  be  considered  as  constituting  cases,  the  English 
language  would  Imve  a  much  greater  number  of  them 
than  the  Greek  and  Latin  tongues  ;  for,  as  every  preposi- 
tion has  its  distinct  meaning  and  effect,  every  combination 
of  a  preposition  and  article  with  the  noun,  would  form  a 
different  relation,  and  would  constitute  a  distinct  case. — 


48  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

This  would  encumber  our  language  with  many  new  term^, 
arid  a  heavy  and  useless  load  of  distinctions.* 

On  the  principle  of  imitating  other  languages  in  names 
and  forms,  without  a  correspondence  in  nature  and  idiom, 
we  might  adopt  a  number  of  declensions,  as  well  as  a  xn- 
riety  of  cases,  for  English  substantives.  Thus,  five  or  six 
declensions,  distinguished  according  to  the  -various  modes 
of  forming  the  plural  of  substantives,  with  at  least  half  a 
dozen  cases  to  each  declension,  would  furnish  a  complete 
arrangement  ^f  English  nouns,  in  all  their  trappings.  See 
on  this  subject,  the  f.fth  and  ninth  sections  of  the  sixth 
cha/iter  of  etymology. 

But  though  this  variety  of  cases  does  not  at  all  corres- 
pond with  the  idiom  of  our  language,  there  seems  to  be 
great  propriety  in  admitting  a  case  in  English  substan- 
tives, which  shali  serve  to  denote  the  objects  of  active  verbs 
and  of  prepositions;  and  which  is,  therefore,  properly 
termetl  the  objective  case.  The  general  idea  of  case 
doubtless  has  a  reference  to  the  termination  of  the  noun  : 
but  there  are  many  instances,  both  in  Greek  and  Latin,  in 
which  the  nominative  and  accusative  cases  have  precisely 
the  same  form,  and  are  distinguished  only  by  the  relation 
they  bear  to  other  words  in  the  sentence.  We  are  there- 
fore warranted,  by  analogy,  in  applying  this  principle  to 
our  own  language,  as  far  as  utility,  and  the  idiom  of  it,  will 
adiuit.  Now  it  is  obvious,  that  in  English,  a  noun  govern- 
ed by  an  active  verb,  or  a  preposition,  is  very  differently 
circumstanced  from  a  noun  in  the  nominative,  or  in  the 
possessive  case  ;  and  that  a  comprehensive  case,  corres- 
pondent to  that  difference,  must  be  useful  and  proper.  The 
business  of  parsing,  and  of  showing  the  connexion  and  de- 
pendtnce  of  words^  will  be  most  conveniently  accomplish- 
ed, by  the  adoption  of  such  a  case  ;  and  the  irregularity  of 
having  our  nouns  sometimes  placed  in  a  situation,  in  which 
they  cannot  be  said  to  be  in  any  case  at  all,  will  be  avoided. 

*  *  If  cases  are  to  be  distinguished  by  the  difierent  si;^nifica- 
tions  ot  tlie  noun,  or  by  tlie  diiierent  relations  it  may  beai-  to  the 
governing  word,  then  we  liave  in  our  language  as  nnany  cases 
almost.,  as  there  are  prepositions  :  and,  above  a  man,  benca!-)  a 
man,  beyond  a  man,  round  about  a  man,  within  a  man,  viitiout 
a  man,  &.c  shall  be  cases,  as  well  as,  of  a  man,  to  a  man,  and 
\*ith  a  man.'  JJr.  B cattle. 


ETYMOLOGY.  49 

The  aiit!  <r  of  this  work  long  doubted  the  propriety,  of 
assigning  to  English  substantives  an  objective  case  :  but 
a  renewed,  critical  examination  of  the  subject  ;  an  ex- 
amination to  which  he  was  prompted  by  the  extensive 
and  increasing  demand  for  the  grammar,  has  produced 
in  his  mind  a  full  persuasion,  that  the  nouns  of  our  lan- 
guage are  entitled  to  this  comprehensive,  objective  case. 

When  the  thing  to  which  another  is  said  to  belong,  is 
expressed  by  a  circumlocution,  or  by  many  terms,  the 
sign  of  the  possessive  case  is  commonly  added  to  the  last 
term  :  as,  '  The  king  of  great  Britain's  dominions.' 

Sometimes,  though  rarely,  two  nouns  in  the  possessive 
case,  immediately  succeed  each  other,  in  the  followmg 
form  :  '  My  friend's  wife's  sister  ;*  a  sense  which  would 
be  better  expressed  by  saying,  '  the  sister  of  my  friend's 
wife  ;'  or,  *  my  friend's  sister  in  law.'  Some  gramma- 
rians say,  that  in  each  of  tht  following  phrases,  viz.  *  A 
book  of  my  brother's,*  '  A  servant  of  the  queen's,*  *  A 
soldier  of  the  king's,*  there  arc  two  genitive  cases  ;  the 
first  phrase  implying,  *  one  of  the  books  of  my  brother,* 
the  next,  *  one  of  the  servants  of  the  queen  ;'  and  the' 
last,  '  one  of  the  soldiers  of  the  king.*  But  as  the  pre- 
position governs  the  objective^  case  ;  and  as  there  are  niit, 
in  each  of  these  sentences,  two  apostrophes  with  the  let- 
ter *  coming  after  them,  we  cannot  with  propriety  say, 
that  there  are  two  genitive  cases. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

OF    ADJECTIVES. 

SECTION  1. 

Of  the  nature  of  Adjectives^  and  the  degrees  of  comparhon. 

An  Adjective  is  a  word  added  to  a  substantive 
to  express  its  quality  :  as,  '  An  indiistrious  man ;' 
*  A  virtuous  woman  ;'  '  A  benevolent  mind.' 

In  English,  the  adjective  is  Rot  varied  on  ac- 
count of  gender,   number,   or  case.     Thus  we 
A  careless  boy  ;  careless  girls.' 
E 


5®  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

The  only  variation  which  it  admit:',  is  that  of 
the  degrees  of  comparison. 

There  are  commonly  reckoned  three  degrees 
of  comparison  ;  the  positive,  the  compara- 
tive, and  tjic  superlative* 

Grammarians  have  generally  enumerated  these  three  " 
decrees  of  comparison  ;  but  the  firsi  of  them  has  been 
thou£^ht  by  some  writers,  to  be,  improperly*  termed  a  de- 
gree of  comparison  ;  as  it  setms  to  be  nothing  more  than 
the  simple  form  of  the  adjective,  and  not  to  imi)iy  either 
comparison  or  degree  This  opinion  may  be  well  found- 
ed, unless  the  adjective  be  supposed  to  imply  comparison 
or  de'^rce,  by  containing  a  secret  or  general  reference  to 
other  things  :  as,  when  we  say,  '  he  is  a  tall  man,*  '  this 
is  a  yazV  day,'  we  make  some  reference  to  the  ordinary 
bize  of  men,  and  to  different  weather. 

The  positive  State  expresses  the  quality  of  an 
object,  withoift  any  increase  or  diminution  :  as, 
good,  wise,  great. 

The  Comparative  Degree  increases  or  lessens 
the  positive  in  signification  ;  as,  wiser,  greater, 
less  wise.  * 

The  Superlative  Degree  increases  or  lessens 
the  positive  to  the  highest  or  lowest  degree  :  as, 
wisest,  greatest,  least  w^ise. 

The  simple  word,  or  positive,  becomes  the 
comparative,  by  adding  r  or  er :  and  the  super- 
lative, by  adding  st  or  est,  to  the  end  of  it  :  as, 
wise,  wiser,  wisest;  great,  greater,  greatest.... 
And  the  adverbs  more  and  vtost,  placed  before 
the  adjective,  has  the  same  effect :  as,  wdse,  more 
wise,  7nost  wise. 

The  termination  ish  may  be  accounted  in  some  sort  a 
degree  of  comparison,  by  which  the  signification  is  dimi- 
nished below  the  positive  :  as,  blacky  blackish,  or  tending 
to  blackness  ;  sail,  saltish,  or  having  a  little  taste  of  salt. 


ETYMOLOGY.  51 

The  word  rather  is  very  properly  used  to  express  a 
small  degree  or  excess  of  a  quality  :  as,  '  She  is  rather 
profuse  in  her  expenses.* 

Monosvllab!es»  for  the  most  part,  are  compared  by  cr 
andesiT;  and  dissyllables  by  more  and  most:  as,  mild, 
milder,  mildist ;  frugal,  more  frugal,  most  fruc^al.  Dis- 
syllal)les  ending  in  y  ;  as,  happy,  lovely  \  and  in  le  after 
a  mute,  as,  able,  ample  ;  or  accented  on  the  last  syllable, 
as,  discreet,  polite  ;  easily  admit  of  er  and  est ;  as,  hap- 
pier, happiest  ;  abler,  ai)lest ;  politer,  politest.  Words 
of  more  than  two  syllables  hardly  ever  ad' Mt  of  those 
terminations. 

In  some  words  the  superlative  is  formed  by  adding  the 
adverb  viost  to  the  end  of  them  ;  as,  neithermost,  utter- 
most, or  utmost,  undermost,  uppermost,  foremost. 

In  English,  as  in  most  languages,  there  are  some  words 
of  very  common  use  (m  which  the  caprice  of  custom  is 
apt  to  get  the  belter  of  analogy)  that  are  irregular  in  this 
Vtspect  :  as,  *  good,  better,  lest ;  bad,  worse,  worst ;  lit- 
tle, less,  least  ;  much  or  many,  more,  most  ;  near,  near- 
er, nearest,  or  next;  late,  later,  latest,  or  last  ;  old, older 
or  elder,  oldest  or  eldest  ;*  and  a  few  others. 

An  adjective  put  without  a  substantive,  with  the  defi- 
nite article  before  it,  become  a  substantive  in  sense  and 
meaning,  and  is  written  as  a  substantive  ;  as  *  Providence 
rewards  the  good^  and  punishes  the  bad* 

\^arious  nouns  placed  before  other  nouns  assume  th(; 
nature  of  adjectives  ;  as,  sea  fish,  wine  vessel,  corn  f.ekK 
meadow  ground.  See. 

Numeral  adjectives  are  either  cardinal,  or  ordinal  :  car- 
dinal, as,  one,  two,  three,  Sec.  ;  ordinal,  as,  first,  second, 
third,  Sec. 


SECTION  2. 
Remarks  on  the  subject  of  Comparison. 
If  we  consider  the  subject  of  comparison  attentively^, 
we  shall  perceive  that  the  degrees  of  ii  are  infinite  in  num- 
ber, or  at  least  indefinite — A  mountain  is  laiger  than  a 
mite  ; — by  how  many  degrees  ?  How  much  bigger  is 
the  earth  than  a   grain  of  sand  ?    By  how  many  degrees 


5^  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

>as  Socrates  wiser  than  Alcibiades  ;  or  by  how  maily 
is  snow  whiter  than  this  puper  ?  It  is  pl-dn,  that  to  these 
and  the  like  questions,  no  definite  answers  can  be  re- 
turned. 

In  quantities,  however,  that  may  be  exactly  raeasured, 
the  degrees  of  excess  may  be  exactly  ascertained.  A  foot- 
is  just  twelve  times  as  long  as  an  inch  ;  and  an  hour  is 
sixty  times  the  length  of  a  minute.  But,  in  regard  to 
qualities^  and  to  those  quantities  whicii  cannot  be  measur- 
ed exactly,  it  is  impossible  to  say  how  many  degrees  may 
be  comprehended  in  the  comparative  excess. 

But  tliough  tlicse  degrees  are  infinite  or  indefinite  in 
fact,  they  cannot  be  so  in  language  ;  nor  would  it  be  con- 
venieni,  if  language  were  to  express  many  of  them.  In 
regard  to  unmeasured  quantities  and  qualities,  the  degrees 
of  more  and  less  (besides  those  marked  above)  may  be 
expressed  intelligibly,  at  least,  if  not  accurately,  by  cer- 
tain adverbs,  or  words  of  like  import :  as,  '  Socrates  was 
■>nuch  wiser  than  Alcibiades  ;* '  Snow  is  a  great  deal  whiter 
than  this  paper ;'  *  Epaminondas  was  by  far  the  most 
ficcomplished  of  the  Thebans  ;'  *  The  evening  star  is  a 
osry  splendid  object,  but  the  sun  is  incomparably  more 
splendid  ;'  *  The  Deity  is  irfinitely  greater  than  the  great- 
est of  his  creatures.*  The  inaccuracy  of  these,  and  the 
like  expressions,  is  not  a  material  inconvenience  ;  and,  if 
it  were,  it  is  unavoidable  :  for  human  speech  can  only 
express  human  thought  ;  and  where  thought  is  necessa- 
rily inaccurate,  language  must  be  so  too. 

AVhen  the  word  very,  exceedingly^  or  any  other  of  sim- 
ilar import,  is  put  before  the  positive,  it  is  called  by  some 
writers  the  superlative  of  eminence,  to  distinguish  it  from 
the  other  superlative,  which  has  been  already  mentioned, 
isnd  is  called  the  supeilative  of  comparison  T\\\\%,very 
cloquerd^  is  termed  the  superlative  of  eminence  ;  most 
eloquent^  the  superlative  of  comparison.  In  the  superla- 
tive of  eminence,  something  of  comparison  is,  however, 
remotely  or  indirectly  intimated  ;  for  we  cannot  reason- 
ably call  a  man  very  el'  quent,  without  comparing  his  elo- 
quence with  the  eloquence  of  other  men. 

The  comparative  may  be,  so  employed,  as  to  express 
the  same  pre-eii^inence  gr  inferiority  as  the  superlative. 


ETYMOLOGY.  53 

Thus,  the  sentence,  *  Of  all  acquirements,  virtue  is  the 
most  valuable^  conveys  the  same  senlimeiit  as  the  follow- 
ing ;  '  Viitue  is  more  valuable  than  every  other  acquire- 
ment.' 

CHAPTER    V. 

OF  PRONOUNS. 

A  Pronoun  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun, 
to  avoid  the  too  frequent  repetition  of  the  same 
word  :  as,  '  The  man  is  happy ;  he  is  benevo- 
lent ;  he  is  useful.' 

There  are  three  kinds  of  pronouns,  viz.  the 
PERSONAL,  the  RELATIVE,  and  the  adjective 

PRONOUNS. 

SECTION  I. 

Of  the  Personal  Pronouns. 

There  are  five  Personal  Pronouns,  viz.  /, 
thou^  he^  she,  it;  with  their  plurals,  we,  ye  or 
you^  they. 

Personal  pronouns  admit  of  person,  number, 
gender,  and  case. 

The  persons  of  pronouns  are  three  in  each 
number,  viz. 

/,  is  the  first  person 

Thou,  is  the  second  person  \  Singular. 

He,  she,  or  it,  is  the  third  person 

^e,  is  the  first  person 

Ye,  or  you  is  the  second  person    \  Plural. 

They,  is  the  third  person 

This  account  of  persons  will  be  veiy  intelli,u;ible,  when 
we  reflect,  that  there  arc  three  persons  who  may  be  the 
subject  of  any  discourse  :  first,  the  person  who  speaks, 
may  speak  of  himself  ;  secondly,  he  may  spealc  of  the 
person  to  whom  he  addresses  himself ;  thirdly,  he  may 
E  2 


54  ENGLISH    GRAMiiAR. 

spe^k  of  some  other  person  :  and  as  the  speakers,  the  peu- 
Kons  spoken  to,  and  the  other  persons  spoken  of,  may  be 
many,  so  each  of  these  persons  must  have  the  plural  num- 
ber. 

The  Numbers  of  pronouns,  like  those  of  sub- 
stantives, are  two,  the  singular  and  the  plural :  as, 
ly  t^^:::i,  he ;  we,  ye  or  you,  they, 

C;r  rider  has  respect  only  to  the  third  person 
singular  of  the  pronouns,  he,  she,  it  He  is 
masculine  ;  she  is  feminine  ;   it  is  neuter. 

The  persons  speaking  and  spoken  to,  being  at  the  same 
time  the  subjects  of  the  discourse,  are  supposed  to  be  pre- 
sent ;  from  which,  and  other  circumstances,  their  sex  is 
commonly  known,  and  needs  not  to  be  marked  by  a  dis- 
tinction of  gender  in  the  pronouns  :  but  the  third  person 
or  thing  spoken  of,  being  absent  and  in  many  respects  un- 
known, it  is  necessary  that  it  should  be  marked  by  a  dis- 
tinction of  gender  ;  at  least  when  some  particular  person 
or  thing  is  spoken  of,  that  ought  to  be  more  distinctly 
marked  :  accordingly  the  pronoun  singular  of  the  third 
person  has  the  three  genders,  he,  she,  it. 

Pronouns  have  three  cases ;  the  nominative, 
the  possessive,  and  the  objective. 

The  objective  case  of  a  pronoun  has,  in  general,  si  form 
tlifTerent  from  that  of  the  nominative,  or  the  possessive 
case. 

The  personal  pronouns  are  thus  declined  : 


// 


Persr.n..              Case. 

First.       Nom, 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Wc 

Poss. 

Mine 

Ours 

Obj. 

Me 

Us 

Second,    JVom. 

Thou 

Ye  or  you 

Poss. 

Thine 

Yours 

Ohj, 

Thee 

You 

Third.      horn. 

He 

They 

Mas.        Pass. 

His 

Theirs 

Obj, 

Him 

Them 

71/ /#  /£. 

l:^^ 

z/^^^:^  ^z/^^ 

ETYMOlOGr. 

Person. 

Case.                Singular. 

Plural. 

Third. 

Xom.            She 

They 

Fern. 

Poss.            Hers 

Theirs 

Obj.             Her 

Them 

Third. 

N07Jl,                 It 

They 

Neuter. 

Poss.            Its 

Then^s 

Ohj.            It 

Them 

ss 


SECTION  2. 

Gf  the  Relative  Pronouns, 

Relative  Pronouns  are  such  as  relate,  in 
general,  to  some  word  or  phrase  going  beiore, 
which  is  thence  called  the  antecedent ;  they  are, 
who^  whichy  and  that :  as,  '  The  man  is  happy 
who  lives  virtuously.'* 

fFhat  is  a  kind  of  compound  relative,  includ- 
ing both  the  antecedent  and  the  relative,  and  is 
equivalent  to  that  which :  as,  *  This  is  xvhat  I 
wanted;'  that  is  to  say,  ^  the  thing  which  I 
wanted.' 

Who  is  applied  to  persons,  which  to  animals 
and  inanimate  things  :  as,  *  He  is  a  friend^  who 
is  faithful  in  adversity;'  *  The  hird^  which  sung 
so  sweetly,  is  flown  ;'  '  This  is  the  tree^  whicfi 
produces  no  fruit.' 

Thaty  as  a  relative,  is  often  used  to  prevent  the 
too  frequent  repetition  of  who  and  xvhick.  It  is 
applied  to  both  persons  and  things  :  as,  *  He  that 
acts  wisely  deserves  praise  ; '  '  Modesty  is  a  quali- 
ty  that  highly  adorns  a  woman.' 

Who  is  of  both  numbers,  and  is  thus  declined  : 

*  The  relative  pronoun,  when  used  interrog-atively,  relates  to 
a  word  or  phrase,  wliich  is  not  antecedenty  but  sudsequeni  to  the 
relative.    See  note  under  the  6th  rule  of  Syntax, 


56  EI^GLISH    GRAMMAR. 

SIng-ular  and  Plural. 

J^^ommative,  Who. 

Possessive,  Whose. 

Objective.  Whom. 

Which,  that,  and  w/ift.'',  are  likewise  of  both  numbers, 
but  they  do  not  vary  their  termination  ,  except  that  whose 
is  sometimes  used  as  the  possessive  case  oiwhich  :  as,  '  Is 
there  any  other  doctrine  whose  followers  are  punished  ?' 

'  And  the  fruit 

Of  that  forl)idden  tree  whose  mortal  taste 

Brought  death/  milton. 

— -'  Pure  the  joy  without  allay. 

Whose  very  rapture  is  tranquillity.'  young. 

*  The  lights  and  shades,  whose  well  accorded  strife 

Gives  all  the  strength  and  colour  of  our  life.*         pope. 

'  This  is  one  of  the  clearest  characteristics  of  its  being 
a  religion  whose  origin  is  divine.*  blair. 

By  the  use  of  this  license,  one  word  is  substituted  for 
three  :  as,  *  Philosophy,  whose  end  is  to  instruct  us  in  the 
knowledge  of  nature,'  for,  '  Philosophy,  the  end  of  which 
is  to  instruct  us,'  &c. 

Who,  which,  and  what,  have  sometimes  the  words  soever 
and  ever  annexed  to  them  ;  as,  *  whosoever  or  whoever^ 
whichsoever  or  whichever,  whatsoever  or  whatever ;'  but 
they  are  seldom  used  in  modern  style. 

The  word  that  is  sometimes  a  relative,  sometimes  a  de- 
monstrative pronoun,  and  sometimes  a  conjunction.  It  is 
a  relative,  when  it  may  be  turned  into  who  or  which  with- 
out destroying  the  sense  :  as,  *  They  that  (who)  reprove 
us,  may  be  our  best  friends  ;*  *  From  every  thing  that 
(which)  you  see,  deri\e  instruction.'  It  is  a  demonstra- 
tive pronoun  when  it  is  followed  immediately  by  a  sub- 
stantive, to  which  it  is  either  joined,  or  refers,  and  wliich 
it  limits  or  qualities :  as,  ^  That  boy  is  industrious  ;'  '  That 
belongs  to  me  ;'  meaning,  that  bo  k,  that  desk,  &c  It  is 
a  conjunction,  when  it  joins  sentences  together,  a\\(\  can- 
not be  turned  into  who  or  which,  without  destroying  the 
sense  :  as,  '  Take  care  that  every  day  be  well  entployed.* 
*•  I  hope  he  will  believe  that  I  hnve  not  acted  improperly.' 

Who,  which,  and  what,  are  called  Interroganves,  wliert 
they  are  used  in  asking  questions  ;  as,  '  It  ho  is  he  i' 
<  Which  is  theboo^  V  *  What  art  thou  doinij  V 


ETYMOLOGY.  5^^ 

Whether  was  fotmerly  made  use  of  to  signify  interroga- 
tion :  as,  ^  Whether  of  these  shall  I  choose  ?*  but  it  is  now 
seldom  used,  the  interrogative  which  being  substituted  for 
it.  Some  grammarians  think  that  the  use  of  it  should  be 
revived,  as,  like  either  and  neither  it  points  to  the  dual 
number  ;  and  would  contribute  to  render  our  expressions 
concise  and  definite. 

Some  writers  have  classed  the  interrogative s  as  a  sepa- 
rate kind  of  pronouns  ;  but  they  are  too  nearly  T«lated  to 
the  relative  pronouns,  both  in  nature  and  form,  to  render 
such  a  division  proper.  They  do  not,  in  fact,  lose  the 
character  of  relatives,  when  they  become  interrogatives. 
The  only  difference  is,  that  nvithout  an  interrogation,  the 
relatives  have  reference  to  a  subject  which  is  antecedent, 
definite,  and  known  ;  with  an  interrogation,  to  a  subject 
which  is  subsequent,  indefinite,  and  unknown,  and  which 
k  is  expected  that  the  answer  should  express  and  ascertain. 


SECTION  S. 

Of  the  Adjective  Pronouns. 

Adjective  Pronouns  are  of  a  mixed  nature, 
participating  the  properties  both  of  pronouns  and 
Adjectives. 

The  adjective  pronouns  may  be  subdivided  in- 
to four  sorts,  namely,  ih<:  possessive^  the  (list rib ii- 
tive,  the  demonst?'ative,  and  the  indejinite. 

1.  The  possessive  are  those  which  relate  to  pos- 
session or  property.  There  are  seven  of  them ; 
viz.  my^  thy^  his,  her,  our,  your,  their. 

Mine  and  thi^ie^  instead  of  my  and  thij,  were  formerly 
used  before  a  substantive,  or  adjective,  beginning  with  a 
vowei,  or  a  silent  h  :  as,  *  Blot  out  all  inine  iniquities.' 

The  possessives,  /;/.v,  ?mne,  thine,  may  be  accounted 
cither  possessive  pronouns,  or  the  possessive  cases  of  their 
respective  personal  pronouns. 

When  the  possessive  pronouns  are  prefixed  to  substan- 
tives, or  are  parted  ironi  them  only  by  an  adjective,  they 
admit  of  no  variation^  whatever  be  the  number  or  case  vi' 


58  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

the  noun  :  as,  My  young  cousin  is  here,  he  knows  my  pa- 
rents ;  her  merit  is  great,  she  lives  with  her  relations ; 
•ur  books  are  torn,  we  own  our  faults  ;  their  situadon  is 
miserable,  I  admire  their  noble  virtues. 

When  tliey  are  separated  from  the  noun  by  a  verb,  or 
when  the  noun  is  understood,  all  of  them,  except  his,  vary 
their  termination  :  as.  This  hat  is  mine,  and  the  other  is 
thine ;  those  trinkets  are  hers  ;  this  house  is  oitrs,  and  that 
is  yours;  theirs  is  more  commodious  than  ours.  But 
these  variations  are  in  fact  the  possessive  cases  of  the  per- 
sonal pronouns. 

The  two  words  owfi  and  self,  are  used  in  conjunction 
with  pronouns.  Own  is  added  to  possessives,  both  singu- 
lar and  plural :  as,  '  ATy  own  hand,  our  own  house.'  It  is 
emphcitical,  and  implies  a  silent  contrariety  or  opposition  : 
us,  '  I  live  in  my  own  house,'  that  is,  *  not  in  a  hired 
house  '  Self  is  added  to  possessives  :  as,  myselj\  your- 
selves ;  and  sometimes  to  personal  pronouns  :  as,  himself, 
itself,  thfinselves.  It  then,  like  own,  expresses  emphasis 
and  opposition  :  as,  '  I  did  this  myself,'  that  is,  '  not  an- 
other ;'  or  it  forms  a  reciprocal  pronoun :  as,  *  We  hurt 
ourselves  by  vain  rage.* 

Himself,  themselves,  are  now  used  in  the  nominative 
case,  instead  of  hissdf,  theirsclves ;  as,  '  He  came  him- 
self j'  '  He  himself  shall  do  this  ;'  '  They  performed  it 
themselves.' 

2.  The  distributive  are  those  which  denote  the 
persons  or  things  that  make  up  a  number,  as  tak- 
en separately  and  singly.  They  are  each,  every, 
either:  as,  '  Each o^\\i's  brothers  is  in  a  fayoiira- 
ble  situarloM;'  '•Every  man  must  account  for 
himseli  ;'  '  i  have  not  seen  either  o^them.' 

I\ach  relates  to  two  or  more  persons  or  things,  and  sig- 
nifies either  of  the  two,  or  every  one  of  any  number  taken 
separately. 

Every  relates  to  several  persons  or  things,  and  signifies 
each  one  of  them  all  tiiken  separately.  This  pronoun  was 
formerly  used  apart  f'.-om  its  noun,  but  it  is  now  constantly 
annexed  to  it,  except  in  legal  proceedingjs :  as  in  the 
phrase  '  all  and  cx^ery  of  them.' 


ETYMOLOGY.  5.9 

Eith'r  relates  to  two  persons  or  things  taken  separately, 
and  signifies  the  one  or  the  other.  To  say,  ^  either  of  the 
three,'  is  therefore  improper. 

AVzV/2er  imports  ^  not  either  ;*  that  is,  not  one  nor  the 
other:  as,  *  Neither  of  my  friends  was  there.* 

3.  The  demonstrative  are  those  which  precise- 
ly point  out  the  subjects  to  which  they  relate : 
this  and  that^  these  and  those  ^  are  of  this  class:  as, 
*  This  is  true  charity  ;  that  is  only  its  image,' 

This  refers  to  the  nearest  person  or  thing,  and 
that  to  the  most  distant :  as,  *  This  man  is  more 
intelligent  than  that.'^  This  indicates  the  latter 
or  last  mentioned  ;  that^  the  former  or  first  men- 
tioned :  as,  '  Both  wealth  and  poverty  are  tempta- 
tions ;  that  tends  to  excite  pride,  this^  discontent. 
Perhaps  the  words  former  and  latter  may  be  properly 
ranked  amongst  the  demonstrative  pronouns,  especially  in 
muny  of  their  applications.  The  following  sentence  may 
serve  as  an  example  :  'It  was  happy  for  the  state,  that 
Faljiiis  continued  in  the  command  with  Minucius :  the 
former^ s  phlegm  was  a  check  upon  the  latter* s  vivacity.* 

4.  The  indejinite  are  those  which  express  their 
subjects  in  an  indefinite  or  general  manner.  The 
following  are  of  this  kind  ;  some^  other ^  any,  one, 
all,  such,  &c. 

Of  these  pronouns,  only  the  words  one  and  other,  are 
varied.  One  has  a  possessive  case,  which  it  forms  in  the 
same  manner  as  substantives  :  as,  one,  one*s.  This  word 
has  a  general  signification,  meaning  people  at  large  ;  and 
sometimes  also  a  peculiar  reference  to  the  person  who  is 
speaking  ;  as,  '  One  ought  to  pity  the  distresses  of  man- 
kind.* '  One  is  apt  to  love  one's  self*  This  word  is  often 
wsed,  by  good  writers,  in  the  plural  number  :  as,  '  The 
great  ones  of  the  world  ;*  *  The  boy  wounded  the  old  bird, 
and  stole  the  young  07ies  ;'  '  My  wife  and  the  little  onet 
are  in  good  health.* 

Other  is  declined  in  the  following  manner  : 


W  ENGLISH  ■GRA^JJdAR. 

Sing-ular.  Plural  ^^ 

Nom.  Ot/ier  Others. 

Poss.  Other^s  Others*. 

Obj.  Other  Others. 

The  plural  others  is  only  used  when  apart  from  the  nouit 
to  which  it  refers,  whether  expressed  or  understood  :  as, 
'  When  you  have  perused  these  papers,  I  will  send  you 
the  others*  '  He  pleases  some,  but  he  disgusts  others.' 
When  this  pronoun  is  joined  to  nouns,  either  singular  or 
plural,  it  has  no  variation  :  as,  '  the  other  man,'  *  the  other 
men.* 

The  following  phrase  may  serve  to  exemplify  the  in- 
definite pronouns.  *  Some  of  you  are  wise  and  good  ;'  *  A 
few  of  them  were  idle,  the  othe7's  industrious  ;'  ^  Neither 
is  there  any  that  is  unexceptionable  ;'  '  0?ie  ought  to  know 
one's  own  mind  ;'  *  They  were  all  present  ;'  *  Such  is  the 
state  of  man,  that  he  is  never  at  rest  ;'  *  Some  are  happy, 
while  others  are  miserable.* 

The  word  another  is  composed  of  the  indefinite  article 
prefixed  to  the  word  other. 

Ao7ie  is  used  in  both  numbers  :  as,  *  JVone  is  so  deaf  as 
he  that  will  not  hear ;'  *  JVone  of  those  are  equal  to  these.* 
It  seems  originally  to  have  signified,  accordmg  to  its  de- 
rivation, not  one,  and  therefore  to  have  had  no  plural  ;  but 
there  is  good  authority  for  the  use  of  it  in  the  plural  num- 
ber :  as,  *  jYone  that  go  unto  her  return  again.*  Prov.  ii.  1 9. 
*  Terms  of  peace  ivere  none  vouchsaf'd.*  Milton.  *  JVone 
of  them  are  varied  to  express  the  gender.*  '  JVone  of  them 
fiave  different  endings  for  the  numbers.*  Lowth's  Intro- 
(iuctioyi.     '  JVone  of  their  productions  are  extant '     Blair. 

We  have  endeavoured  to  distinguish,  and  explain  the 
nature  of  the  adjective  pronouns ;  but  it  is  difficult  to  di- 
vide them  in  an  exact  and  unexceptionable  manner  Some 
of  them,  in  particular  applications,  might  have  been  dif- 
ferently classed  :  but  it  is  presumed  that,  in  general,  the 
distribution  is  tolerably  correct.  Ail  the  pronouns,  except . 
the  personal  and  relative,  may  indeed,  in  a  general  view  of 
them,  be  considered  as  definitive  pronouns,  because  they 
define  or  ascertain  the  extent  ot  the  common  name,  or 
general  term,  to  which  they  refer  or  are  joined  ;  but  as 
each  class  of  them  does  this,  more  or  less  exactly,  or  in  aj 


1 


ETYMOLeCY.  61 

manner  peculiar  to  itself,  a  division  adapted  to  this  circum- 
stance appears  to  be  suitable  to  the  nature  of  thhigs,  and  the 
understanding  of  learners. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  some  respectable  grammarians,  that 
the  words  this^  that^  any,  some,  such,  his,  their,  our,  os.c.  are 
pronouns,  when  they  are  used  separately  from  the  nouns 
to  which  they  relate  ;  but  that,  when  they  are  joined  to 
those  nouns,  they  are  not  to  be  considered  as  belonging  to 
this  species  of  words  ;  because,  in  this  associatioL,  they 
rather  ascertain  a  substantive,  than  supply  the  place  of  one. 
They  assert  that,  in  the  phrases,  *  give  me  that,*  '  this  is 
John's'  and  *  such  were  some  of  you,*  the  words  in  italics 
are  pronouns  ;  but  that,  in  the  following  phrases,  they 
are  not  pronouns  ;  '  this  book  is  instructive,*  *  some  boys 
are  ingenious,*  '  my  health  is  declining,'  *  otir  hearts  are 
deceitful,'  &c.  Other  grammarians  think,  that  none  of 
these  forms  of  speech  can  properly  be  called  pronouns  ;  as 
the  genuine  pronoun  stands  by  itself,  without  the  aid  of  a 
noun  expressed  or  understood.  They  are  of  opinion,  that 
in  the  expiessions,  '  Give  me  that  ;*  '  this  is  John's,'  Sec. 
the  noun  is  always  understood,  and  must  be  supplied  in 
the  mmd  of  the  reader  :  as,  '  Give  me  that  book  ;'  '  this 
book  is  John's  ;*  '  and  such  fiersons  were  some  fiersons 
amongst  you.* 

Some  writers  are  of  opinion  that  the  pronouns  should 
be  classed  into  substantive  and  adjective  pronouns.  Under 
the  former,  they  include  the  personal  and  the  relative  ; 
under  the  latter,  all  the  others.  But  this  division,  though 
a  neat  one,  does  not  appear  to  be  accurate.  All  the  rela- 
tive pronouns  will  not  range  under  the  substantive  head.... 
We  have  distributed  these  parts  of  speech,  in  the  mode 
which  we  think  most  correct  and  intelligible  ;  but,  for  the 
information  of  students,  and  to  direct  their  inquiries  on 
the^  subject,  we  state  the  different  opmions  of  several  jil- 
writerson  Grammar. 


62  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

CHAPTER  VI. 

OF    VERBS. 

SECTION  1. 

Of  the  nature  of  Verbs  in  general. 

A  VERB  is  a  word  which  signifies  to  be,  to  do, 
or  to  SUFFER  ;  as,  *  I  am,  I  rule,  I  am  ruled.' 

Verbs  are  of  three  kinds  ;  active,  passive, 
and  NEUTER.  They  are  also  divided  into  regu- 
lar, IRREGULAR,  aild  DEFECTIVE. 

A  Verb  Active  expresses  an  action,  and  ne- 
cessarily implies  an  agent,  and  an  object  acted 
upon  :  as,  to  love  ;  *  I  love  Penelope.' 

A  Verb  Passive  expresses  a  passion  or  a  suf- 
fering, or  the  receiving  of  an  action  ;  and  neces- 
sarily implies  an  object  acted  upon,  and  an  agent 
by  which  it  is  acted  upon :  as,  to  be  loved ; 
'  Penelope  is  loved  by  me.' 

A  Verb  Neuter  expresses  neither  action  nor 
passion,  but  being,  or  a  state  of  being  :  as,  *  I 
am,  I  sleep,  I  sit.'^ 

*  ^^erbs  have  been  distinguished  by  some  writers  into  the  fol. 
lowing  kinds.  \ 

1st.  Actire-Transitlvey  or  those  which  denote  an  action  that  I 
passed  from  the  agent  to  some  object ;  as,  Cxsar  conquered  ' 
I'ompey. 

2d.  Active-Tntransitive,  ov  ihoBQ,  which  express  that  kind  of 
action,    which  has  no  effect  upon  any  thing  beyond  the  agent   i 
himself:  as,  Cxsar  walked. 

3d.  Passive^  or  those  which  express,  not  action,  but  passion,  i 
whether  pleasing  or  painful :  as,  Portia  was  loved  ;  Pompey  was  .i 
conquered. 

4th.  Jsfeutery  or  those  which  express  an  attribute  that  consists 
neither  in  action  nor  passion  :  as,  Csesar  stood. 

This  appears  to  be  an  orderly  arrangement.  But  if  the  class 
of  active-intravsiti'de  verbs  were  admitted,  it  would  rather  perplex 
than  as.sist  the  learner:  for  the  difference  between  verbs  acl" 
and  neuter,  as  transitive  and  intransitive,  is  easy  and  obvioi 
but  the  difference  between  verbs  absolutely  neuter  and  inti' 
sitively  active,  is  not  always  clear.  It  is,  indeed,  often  very  dif- 
ficult to  be  ascertained. 


ETYMOLOGY.  ^3 

The  verb  active  is  also  called  transitive^,  because  the 
action  passes  over  to  the  object,  or  has  an  effect  upon 
some  other  thing  :  as,  '  The  tutor  instructs  his  pupils  ;' 
*  I  esteem  the  man.* 

Verbs  neuter  may  properly  be  denominated  intranai- 
tives^  because  the  effect  is  confined  within  the  subject, 
and  floes  not  pass  over  to  any  object :  as,  *  I  sit,  he  lives, 
they  sleep.* 

Some  of  the  verbs  that  are  usually  ranked  among-  neu- 
ters, make  a  near  approach  to  the  nature  of  a  veri)  active  ; 
but  they  may  be  distinguished  from  it  by  their  being  in- 
transitive :  as,  to  run,  to  walk,  to  fly.  See.  The  rest  are 
more  obviously  neutei",  and  more  clearly  expressive  of  a 
middle  state  between  action  and  passion  :  as,  to  sttuid,  to 
lie,  to  sleep,  Sec. 

In  English,  many  verbs  are  used  both  in  an  active  and 
a  neuter  siLj;niiication,  the  construction  only  determining 
of  which  kind  they  are  :  as,  to  flatten,  signifying  to  make 
even  or  level,  is  a  verb  active  ;  but  when  it  signifies  to 
grow  dull  or  iii?^ipid,  it  is  a  verb  neuter. 

A  neuter  verb,  by  the  addition  of  a  preposition,  may  be- 
come a  compound  active  verb.  To  smile  is  a  neuter  verb  : 
it  cannot,  therefore,  be  followed  by  an  objective  case,  nor 
be  construed  as  a  passive  verb.  We  cannot  say,  s/ie 
smiled  him^  or,  hs  was  smiled.  But  to  smile  cii  being  a 
compound  aclive  verb,  we  properly  say,  she  smiled  on  him  ; 
he  --itas  smiled  071  by  fortune  in  every  undertaking. 

Auxiliary  or  helping  Verbs,  are  those  by  the 
help  of  wliich  the  English  verbs  are  principally 
conjugated.  They  are,  do,  be,  have,  shall,  xvill, 
may,  can,  with  their  variations  ;  and  let  and  rauU. 
which  have  no  variation.* 

In  our  definition  of  the  verb,  as  a  part  of  speech  which 
signifies  to  he,  to  do,  or  to  suffer.  Sec.  we  have  included 
every  thing,  either  expressly  or  by  necessary  consequence, 
that  is  essential  to  its  nature,  and  nothing  that  is  not  essen- 
tial to  it.  This  definition  is  warranted  by  the  authority  of 
l)r.  Lowth,  and  of  many  other  respectable  writers  on 

*  Lett  as  a  principle  verb,  has  lettest,  and  icitcth  ,■  but  as  a 
tclping^  verb  it  udmit*  of  no  variation. 


64  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

grammar.  There  are,  however,  some  grammarians,  who 
«onsicler  assertion  as  the  essence  of  the  verb.  But,  as  the 
participle  and  the  infinitive,  if  included  in  it,  would  prove 
insuperable  objections  to  their  scheme,  they  have,  without 
hesitation^  denied  the  former  a  place  in  the  verb,  and  de- 
clared tlie  latter  to  be  merely  an  abstract  noun.  This  ap- 
pears to  be  going  rather  too  far  in  support  of  an  hypothe- 
sis. It  seems  to  be  incumbent  on  these  grammarians,  to 
reject  also  the  imperative  mood.  What  part  of  speech 
would  they  make  the  verbs  in  the  following  sentence  ? 

*  Depart  instantly  :  improve  your  time  :  forgive  us  our 
sins.'  Will  it  be  said,  that  the  verbs  in  these  phrases  ar« 
assertions  ? 

In  reply  to  these  questions,  it  has  been  said,  that  '  De- 
part instantly,*  is  an  expression  equivalent  to,  '  I  desire 
you  to  depart  instantly  ;*  and  that  as  the  latter  phrase  im- 
plies aflTii'mation  or  assertion,  so  does  the  former.  But, 
supposing  the  phrases  to  be  exactly  alike  in  stnse,  the 
reasoning  is  not  conclusive.  1st.  In  the  latter  phrase,  the 
only  part  implying  affirmation,  is,  '  I  desire.*     Tho  words 

*  to  depart,*  are  in  the  infinitive  mood,  and  contain  no  as- 
sertion :  they  affirm  nothing.  2d.  The  position  is  not 
tenable,  that  *  Equivalence  in  sense  implies  similarity  in 
grammatical  nature.*  Jt  proves  too  much,  and  therefore 
nothing.  This  mode  of  reasoning  would  confound  the 
acknowledged  grammatical  distinction  of  words.  A  pro- 
noim,  on  this  principle,]  may  be  proved  to  be  a  noun  ; 
a  noun,  a  verb  ;  an  adverb,  a  noun  and  preposition  ;  the 
superlative  degree,  the  comparative  ;  the  imperative 
mood,  the  indicative  ;  the  future  tense,  the  present  j  and 
.so  on  ;  because  they  may  respectively  be  resolved  into 
similar  meanings.  Thus,  in  the  sentence,  '  I  desire  you 
to  depart,'  the  words  to  dcfiart^  may  be  called  a  noun,  be- 
cause they  are  equivalent  in  sense  to  the  noun  defiarturey 
in  the  following  sentence, '  I  desire  your  departure.*  The 
words  '  Depart  instantly,'  may  be  proved  to  be,  not  the 
imperative  mood  with  an  adverb,  but  the  indicative  and 
infinitive,  v.ith  a  noun  and  preposition  ;  for  they  are  equi- 
valent to  *■  I  desire  you  to  depart  in  an  instant.'  The 
cufierlative  degree  in  this  sentence,  *  Of  all  acquirements 
virtue  is  tlie  ni©st  valuable/  may  pass  for  Uie  eomparativcy 


BTYMOLOGV.  65 

because  it  conveys  the  same  sentiment  as,  *  Virtue  is 
more  valuable  than  every  other  acquirement/ 

We  shall  not  pursue  this  subject  any  further,  as  the  rea- 
der must  be  satisfied,  that  only  the  word  defsire^  in  the 
equivalent  sentence,  implies  affirmation  ;  and  that  one 
phrase  may,  in  sense,  be  equivalent  to  another,  though  its 
grammatical  nature  is  essentially  different. 

To  verbs  belong  number,  person,  mood, 
and  TENSE. 

SECTION  2. 

Of  jVumber  and  Person. 

Verbs  have  two  numbers,  the  Singular  and 
the  Plural :  as,  'I  run,  we  run,'  &.c. 

In  each  number  there  are  three  persons  ;  as, 

Suigular.  Plural. 

First  Person,       I  love.  We  love. 

Second  Person,  Thou  lovest.  Ye  or  you  love. 
Third  Person.      He  loves.  They  love. 

Thus  the  verb,  in  some  parts  of  it,  varies  its  endings,  tt> 
express,  or  agree  with,  different  persons  of  the  same  num- 
ber: as,  *  I  love,  thou  lovest  ;  he  lovet/i,  or  loves  j*  and 
also  to  express  different  numbers  of  the  same  person  :  as, 
*  thou  lovest,  ye  love  ;  he  loveth,  they  love*  In  the  plural 
number  of  the  verb,  there  is  na  variation  of  ending  to  ex- 
press the  different  persons  ;  and  the  verb,  in  the  three 
persons  plural,  is  the  same  as  it  is  in  the  first  person  sin- 
gular. Yet  this  scanty  provision  "of  termination  is  suffi- 
cient for  all  the  purposes  of  discourse,  and  no  ambiguity 
arises  from  it  :  the  verb  being  always  attended,  either 
with  the  noun  expressing  the  subject  acting  or  acted  upon, 
or  with  the  pronoun  representing  it.  For  this  reason,  the 
plural  termination  in  en,  they  lovcn,  they  iveren,  formerly 
in  use,  was  laid  aside  as  unnecessary,  and  has  long  been 
obsolete. 


^6  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

SECTION  3. 

Of  Moods  and  Participles. 

Mood  or  Mode  is  a  particular  form  of  the 
verb,  showing  the  manner  in  which  the  being, 
action,  or  passion,  is  represented. 

The  nature  of  a  mood  may  be  more  intelligibly  explain- 
ed to  the  scholar,  by  observing,  that  it  consists  in  the  change 
which  the  verb  undergoes,  to  signify  various  intentions  of 
tlie  mind,  and  various  modifications  and  circumstances  of 
action  ;  which  explanation,  if  compared  with  the  following 
account  and  uses  of  the  different  moods,  will  be  found  t© 
agree  with  and  illustrate  them. 

There  are  five  moods  of  verbs,  the  indica- 
tive, the  IMPERATIVE,  the  potential,  the 
SUBJUNCTIVE,  and  the  infinitive. 

The  Indicative  Mood  simply  indicates  or  de- 
clares a  thing  ;  as,  *  He  loves,  he  is  loved  : '  or 
it  asks  a  question  :  as,  *  Does  he  love  ?'  '  Is  he 
loved  V 

The  Imperative  Mood  is  used  for  commanding, 
exhorting,  entreating,  or  permitting  :  as,  '  De- 
part tiiou  ;  -mind  ye  ;  let  us  stay  ;   go  in  peace.' 

Though  this  mood  derives  its  name  from  its  intimation 
of  command,  it  is  used  on  occasions  of  a  very  opposite  na- 
ture, even  in  the  humblest  supplications  of  an  inferiour 
being  to  one  who  is  infinitely  his  superiour  :  as,  '  Give  us 
tliis  day  our  daily  bread  ;  and  forgive  us  our  trespasses.* 

The  Potential  Mood  implies  possibility  or  lib- 
erty, power,  will,  or  obligation  :  as.  '  It  may 
rain  ;  he  ma}^  go  or  stay  ;  I  can  ride  ;  he  would 
walk  ;   they  should  learn.' 

The  Subjunctive  Mood  represents  a  thing  un- 
der a  condition,  motive,  wish,  supposition,  &c.  ; 
and  is  preceded  by  a  conjunction,  expressed  or 
understood,  and  attended  by  another  verb  :  as, 
'  \  will  respect  him,   though  he  clvde  m-e  ;' 


ETYMOLOGY.  67 

*  Were  he  good,  he  would  be  happy  ;'  that  is, 
^  ifhQ  were  good.' 

The  Infinitive  Mood  expresses  a  thing  in  a 
general  and  unlimited  manner,  without  any  dis- 
tinction of  number  or  person  ;  as,  '  to  act,  to 
speak,  to  be  feared.' 

The  participle  is  a  certain  form  of  the  verb, 
and  derives  its  name  from  its  participating,  not 
only  of  the  properties  of  a  verb,  but  also  of  those 
of  an  adjective  :  as,  '  I  am  desirous  of  knowing 
him  ;  '  admired  and  applauded^  he  became  vain ;' 
'  Having  finished  his  work,  he  submitted  it,'  &c. 

There  are  three  participles,  the  Present  or  Ac- 
tive, the  Perfect  or  Passive,  and  the  Compound 
Perfect  :  as,  *  loving,  loved,  having  loved.' 

Agreeably  to  the  general  practice  of  Grammarians,  we 
have  represented  the  present  participle,  as  active  ;  and 
the  past,  as  passive  :  but  they  are  not  uniformly  so  :  the 
present  is  sometimes  passive  ;  and  the  past  is  frequently 
active.  Thus,  '  The  youth  ivas  consuming  by  a  slow 
malady  ;'  '  The  Indian  rjas  burning  by  the  cruelty  of  his 
enemies  ;*  appear  to  be  instances  of  the  present  participle 
being  used  passively.  *  He  haa  instructed  me  ;'  '  I  have 
gratefully  repaid  his  kindness  ;*  are  examples  of  the  past 
participle  being  applied  in  an  active  sense.  We  may  also 
observe,  that  the  present  participle  is  sometimes  associated 
with  the  past  and  future  tenses  of  the  verb ;  and  the  past 
participle  connected  with  the  present  and  future  tenses.— 
The  most  unexceptionable  distinction  which  grammarians 
make  between  the  participles,  is,  that  the  one  points  to  the 
continuation  of  the  action,  passion,  or  state,  denoted  by  the 
verb  ;  and  the  other,  to  the  completion  of  it.  Thus,  the 
present  participle  signifies  imperfect  action,  or  actioa  be- 
gun and  not  ended  :  as,  *  I  am  writing  a  letter.*  The 
past  participle  signifies  action  perfected^  or  finished  :  as^ 

*  I  have  written  a  letter  ;*  '  The  letter  is  written.'* 

*  Vv'hen  this  participle  is  joined  to  the  verb  to  have,  it  is  called 
perfect ;  when  it  is  joined  to  the  verb  to  bcj  or  understood  witlli 
it,  it  is  denominattd  passive. 


6S  ENGtISH    GRAMMAR* 

The  participle  is  distinguished  from  the  adjective,  by 
the  former's  expressing  the  idea  of  time,  and  the  lattcr's 
denoting  only  a  quality.  The  phrases,  *  loving  to  give  as 
well  as  to  receive,*  *  moving  in  haste,'  *  heated  witli  liquor,* 
contain  principles  giving  the  idea  of  time  ;  but  the  epi*^ 
thets  contained  in  the  expressions,  '  a  loving  child,*  *  a 
moving  spectacle,'  '  a  heated  imagination,'  mark  simply 
the  qualities  referred  to,  without  any  regard  to  time  ;  and 
may  properly  be  called  participial  adjectives. 

Participles  not  only  convey  the  notion  of  time  ;  but  they 
also  signify  actions,  and  govern  the  cases  of  nouns  and 
pronouns,  in  the  same  manner  as  verbs  do  ;  and  there- 
fore should  be  comprehended  in  the  general  name  of  verbs. 
That  they  are  mere  modes  of  the  verb,  is  manifest,  if  our 
definition  of  a  verb  be  admitted  :  for  they  signify,  being, 
doing,  or  suffering,  with  the  designation  of  time  superad- 
ded. But  if  the  essence  of  the  verb  be  made  to  consist  in 
affirmation  or  assertion,  not  only  the  participle  will  be  ex- 
cluded from  its  place  in  the  verb,  but  the  infinitive  itself 
also  ;  which  certain  ancient  grammarians  of  great  authori- 
ty held  to  be  alone  the  genuine  verb,  simple  and  uncon- 
jiected  with  persons  and  circumstances. 

The  following  phrases,  even  when  considered  in  them- 
selves, show  that  participles   include  the  idea  of  time  : 

*  The    letter    being   ivritten^    or    having    been    written  ;' 

*  Charles  being  nvriting^  having  written,  or  having  been 
writing.*  But  when  arranged  in  an  entire  sentence,  which 
they  must  be  to  make  a  complete  sense,  they  show  it  still 
more  evidently  :  as,  ^  Charles  having  writte^i  the  letter, 
sealed  and  despatched  it.* — The  participle  does  indeed  as- 
sociate with  different  tenses  of  the  verb  :  as,  *  I  am  writ- 
ing,' '  I  was  writing,'  '  I  shall  be  writing :'  but  this  forms 
no  just  objection  to  its  denoting  time.  If  the  time  of  it  is 
often  relative  time,  this  circumstance,  far  from  disproving, 
Bupports  our  position.*  See  ebservations  U7ider  Ride  13 
ef  Syntaa:. 

Participles  sometimes  perform  the  office  of  substan- 
tives, and  are  used  as  such  ;  as  in  the  following  instances  ; 

*  From  the  very  nature  of  time,  an  action  may  be  prese7it  noxvp 
it  may  htn>e  been  present  formerlij^  or  it  may  be  present  2it  some 
fuUire  period— yet  who  ever  supposed,  that  the  present  of  the 
indicative  denotes  no  time  l  Encyclopaedia  JSritanjiica^ 


ETYMOLOGY.  69 

'  The  beginning  ;'  *  a  good  understanding  ;*  <  excellent 
viriting  ;'  '  The  chancellor's  bei7ig  attached  to  the  king 
secured  his  crown  :'  *  The  general's  having  failed  in  this 
enterprise  occasioned  his  disgrace  ;'  '  John's  having  been 
writing  a  longtime  had  wearied  him.* 

That  the  words  in  italics  of  the  three  latter  examples, 
perfonn  the  office  of  substantives,  and  may  be  considered 
as  such,  will  be  evident,  if  we  reflect,  that  the  first  of  them 
has  exactly  the  same  meaning  and  construction  as,  '  The 
chancellor's  attachment  to  the  king  secured  his  crown  ;* 
and  that  the  other  examples  will  bear  a  similar  construc- 
tion. The  words,  being  attached^  govern  the  word  chan- 
cellor's in  the  possessive  case,  in  the  one  instance,  as  clear- 
ly as  attachment  governs  it  in  that  case,  in  the  other  :  and 
it  is  only  substantives,  or  wot-ds  and  phrases,  which  ope- 
rate as  substantives,  that  govern  the  genitive  or  possessive 
case. 

The  following  sentence  is  not  precisely  the  same  as  the 
above,  either  in  sense  or  construction,  though,  except  the 
genitive  case,  the  words  are  the  same  ;  '  The  chancellor, 
being  attached  to  the  king,  secured  his  crown.'  In  the 
former,  the  words,  being  attached^  form  the  nominative 
case  to  the  verb,  and  are  stated  as  the  cause  of  the  effect  ; 
in  the  latter,  they  are  not  the  nominative  case,  and  make 
only  a  circumstance  to  chancellor^  which  is  the  proper 
nominative.  It  may  not  be  improper  to  add  another  form 
of  this  sentence,  by  which  the  learner  may  better  under- 
stand the  peculiar  nature  and  form  of  each  of  these  modes 
of  expression  :  ^  The  chancellor  being  attached  to  the 
king,  his  crown  was  secured.'  This  constitutes  what  is 
properly  called,  the  Case  Absolute. 


ff> 


SECTION  4. 
Remarks  on  the  Potential  Mood, 


That  the  Potential  Mood  slioiild  be  separated  froni 
the  subjunctive,  is  evident,  from  the  intricacy  and  confu- 
sion which  are  produced  by  their  being  blended  together, 
and  from  the  distinct  nature  of  the  two  moods  ;  the  for- 
mer of  which  may  be  expressed  without  any  condition, 
supposition,  8^c.  as  will  appear  from  the  followin|^  instan- 


70  ENGLISH    CRAM  MAR  J 

ees  :  '  They  might  have  done  better  ;'  <  We  may  always 
act  uprightly  ;*  '  He  was  generous,  and  ivould  not  take 
revenge  ;'  '  We  should  resist  the  allurements  of  vice  j' 
'  I  could  formerly  indulge  myself  in  things,  of  which  I 
cannot  now  think  but  with  pain.* 

Some  grammarians  have  supposed  that  tlie  Potential 
Mood,  as  distinguished  above  from  the  Subjunctive,  coin- 
cides with  the  Indicative.  But  as  the  latter  '  simply  in- 
dicates or  declares  a  thing,'  it  is  manifest  that  the  former, 
which  modifies  the  declaration,  and  introduces  an  idea 
materially  distinct  from  it,  must  be  considerably  different. 
*I  Ci2rt  walk,*  *  I  should  walk,*  appear  to  be  so  essentially 
distinct  ft^m  the  simplicity  of,  *  I  walk,'  '  I  walked,'  as  to 
warrant  a  correspondent  distinction  of  moods.  The  Im- 
perative and  Infinitive  Moods,  which  are  allov/ed  to  retain 
their  rank,  do  not  appear  to  contain  such  strong  marks  of 
discrimination  from  the  Indicative,  as  arc  found  in  the 
Potential  Mood. 

There  are  other  writers  on  this  subject,  who  exclude 
the  Potential  Mood  from  their  division,  because  it  is  form- 
ed, not  by  varying  the  principal  verb,  but  by  means  of  the 
auxiliary  verbs  may^  can^  mighty  could,  loould,  Sec.  but  if  we 
recollect,  that  moods  are  used  '  to  signify  various  inten-. 
tions  of  the  mind,  and  various  modificatiows  and  circum- 
stances of  action,'  we  shall  perceive  that  those  auxiliaries, 
far  from  interfering  with  this  design,  do,  in  the  clearest: 
manner,  support  and  exemplify  it  On  the  reason  alleged; 
by  these  writers,-  the  greater  part  of  the  Indicative  Moodl 
must  also  be  excluded  ;  as  but  a  small  part  of  it  is  conju- 
gated without  auxiliaries.  The  Subjunctive  too  v/ill  fare^ 
no  better  ;  since  it  so  nearly  resembles  the  Indicative,  and- 
is  formed  by  means  of  conjunctions,  expressed  or  under*' 
stood,  which  do  not  more  effectually  show  the  varied  in-' 
tentions  of  the  mind,  than  the  auxiliaries  do  which  arcj 
used  to  form  the  Potential  Mood.  ] 

Some  writers  have  given  our  moods  a  much  greater  ex-  ' 
tent  than  we  have  assigned  to  them.  They  assert  that  the 
English  language  may  be  said,  without  any  great  improf 
piiety,  to  have  as  many  moods  as  it  has  auxiliary  verbs  :.: 
and  they  allege,  in  support  of  their  opinion,  that  the  com- 
pound ^xpressi<^ns  which  they  help  to  form,  point  out 


ETYMOLOGY.  71 

those  various  dispositions  and  actions,  which,  in  other  lan« 
guages,  are  expressed  by  moods.  This  would  be  to  mul- 
tiply the  moods  without  advantage.  It  is,  however,  cer- 
tain, that  the  conjugation  or  variation  of  verbs,  in  the  Eng- 
lish language,  is  effected,  almost  entirely,  by  the  means  of 
auxiliaries.  We  must,  therefore,  accommodate  ourselves 
to  this  circumstance  ;  and  do  that  by  their  assistance, 
which  has  been  done  in  the  learned  languages  (a  few  in- 
stances to  the  contrary  excepted)  in  another  manner, 
namely,  by  varying  the  form  of  the  verb  itself.  At  the 
same  time,  it  is  necessary  to  set  proper  bounds  to  this 
business,  so  as  not  to  occasion  obscurity  and  perplexity, 
when  we  mean  to  be  simple  and  per^spicuous.  Instead, 
therefore,  of  making  a  separate  mood  for  every  auxiliary 
verb,  and  introducing  moods  Interrogative,  Gfitative^Pro- 
missive^  Hortati-ue,  Prccative^  &c.  we  have  exhibited  such 
only  as  are  obviously  distinct ;  and  which,  whilst  they  arc 
calculated  to  unfold  and  display  the  subject  intelligibly  to 
the  learner,  seem  to  be  sufficient,  and  not  more  than  suf- 
ficient, to  answer  all  the  purposes  for  which  moods  were 
introduced. 

From  Grammarians,  who  form  their  ideas,  and  make 
their  decisions,  respecting  this  part  of  English  Grammar, 
on  the  principles  and  construction  of  languages,  which, 
in  these  points,  do  not  suit  the  peculiar  nature  of  our  own, 
but  differ  considerably  from  it,  we  may  very  naturally 
expect  grammatical  schemes  that  are  neither  perspicuous 
nor  consistent,  and  which  will  tend  more  to  perplex  than 
inform  the  learner.  See  pages  28 — 77.  93 — 95.  98— 
iOl.      184—186. 


SECTION  5. 

Of  the  Tenses. 

Tense,  being  the  distinction  of  time,  might 
seem  to  admit  only  of  the  present,  past,  and  fu- 
ture ;  but  to  mark  it  more  accurately,  it  is  made 
to  consist  of  six  variations,  viz.  the  present, 
the  IMPERFECT,  the  perfect,  the  pluper- 


7i  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.' 

FECT,   and  the   first   and   second   future 

TENSES. 

The  Present  Tense  represents  an  action  or 
event,  as  passing  at  the  time  in  which  it  is  men- 
tioned :  as,  *  I  rule ;  I  am  ruled  ;  I  think  ;  I 
fear.' 

The  present  tense  likewise  expresses  a  character, 
quality,  &c.  at  present  existing  :  as,  '  He  is  an  able  man ; 
*  She  is  an  amiable  woman.*  It  is  also  used  in  speaking 
of  actions  continued,  with  occasional  intermissions,  to  the 
present  time  :  as,  '  He  frequently  rides  ;'  *  He  walks  out 
every  morning  ;*  '  He  goes  into  the  country  every  sum- 
mer.* We  sometimes  apply  this  tense  even  to  persons 
long  since  dead :  as,  '  Seneca  reasons  and  moralizes 
well  ;•  *  Job  speaks  feelingly  of  his  afflictions.' 

The  present  tense,  preceded  by  the  words,  when,  be- 
fore,  after,  as  soon  as,  &c.  is  sometimes  used  to  point  out 
the  relative  time  of  a  future  action  :  as,  *  When  he  arrives 
he  will  hear  the  news  ;'  '  He  will  hear  the  news  before 
he  arrives,  or  as  soon  as  he  arrives,  or,  at  farthest,  soon 
after  he  arrives  ;'  *  The  more  she  improves,  the  more 
amiable  she  will  be.' 

In  animated  historical  narrntions,  this  tense  is  some- 
times substituted  for  the  imperfect  tense  :  as,  *  He  enters 
the  territory  of  the  peaceable  inhabitants  ;  hefg-hts  and 
conquers,  takes  an  immense  booty,  which  he  divides 
amongst  his  soldiers,  and  returns  home  to  enjoy  an  empty 
triumph.' 

The  Imperfect  Tense  represents  the  action  or 
event,  either  as  past  and  finished,  or  as  remain- 
ing unfinished  at  a  certain  time  past ;  as,  *  I 
loved  her  for  her  modesty  and  virtue ; '  *  They 
were  travelling  post  v. hen  he  met  them.' 

The  Perfect  Tense  not  only  refers  to  what  is 
past,  but  also  conveys  an  allusion  to  the  present 
time  :  as,  '  I  have  finished  my  letier  ;'  I  have 
seen  the  person  that  was  recommended  to  me,' 


ETYMOLOGV.  73 

In  the  former  example,  it  is  dgnified  that  the  finishing^ 
of  the  letter,  though  past,  was  at  a  period  immediately,  or 
very  nearly,  preceding  the  present  time.  In  the  latter 
instance,  it  is  uncertain  whether  the  person  mentioned  was 
seen  by  the  speaker  a  long  or  short  time  before.  The 
meaning  is,  *  I  have  seen  him  some  time  in  the  course  of 
a  period  which  includes,  or  comes  to,  the  present  time.* 
When  the  particular  time  of  any  occurrence  is  specified, 
as  prior  to  the  present  time,  this  tense  is  not  used  :  for  it 
would  be  improper  to  say,  '  I  have  seen  him  yesterday  ;' 
or,  '  I  have  finished  my  work  last  week.*  In  these  cases 
the  imperfect  is  necessary  :  as,  <  I  saiu  him  yesterday  ;' 

*  \  finished  my  work  last  week.*  But  when  we  speak  in- 
definitely of  any  thing  past,  as  happening  or  not  happen- 
ing in  the  day,  year,  or  age,  in  which  we  mention  it,  the 
perfecbmust  be  employed  :  as,  '  I  have  been  there  this 
morning:*  *  I  have  travelled  much  this  year  :*  *  We  have 
escaped  many  dangers  through  life.*  In  referring,  how- 
ever, to  such  a  division  of  the  day  as  is  past  before  the 
time  of  our  speaking,  we  use  the  imperfect :  as,  '  They 
came  home  this  morning  ;*  *  He  ivas  with  them  this  after- 
noon.* 

The  perfect  tense,  and  the  imperfect  tense,  both  denote 
a  thing  that  is  past  ;  but  tlie  former  denotes  it  in  such  a 
manner,  that  there  is  still  actually  remaining  some  part  of 
the  time  to  slide  away,  wherein  we  declare  the  thing  has 
been  done  ;  whereas  the  imperfect  denotes  the  thing  or 
action  past,  in  such  a  manner,  that  nothing  remains  of  that 
time  in  which  it  was  done.  If  we  speak  of  the  present 
centuiy,  we  say,  *  Philosophers  have  made  great  discover- 
ies in  the  present  century  :*  but  if  we  speak  of  the  last 
century,  we  say,  *  Philosophers  made  great  discoveries  in 
the  last  century.*     He  has  been  much  afflicted  this  year  ;* 

*  I  haroe  this  week  read  the  king's  proclamation  ;*  ^  I  have 
heard  great  news  this  i-noiiiing  :*  in  these  instances,  '  He 
has  been^*  *  I  have  read*  and  *  heard^*  denote  things  that 
are  past :  but  they  occurred  in  this  year,  in  this  week,  and 
to-day  :  and  still  there  remains  a  part  of  this  year,  week, 
and  day,  whereof  I  speak. 

In  general,  the  perfect  tense  may  be  applied  wherever 
the  action  is  connected  with  the  present  time,  by  tke  aolua'l 

G 


74  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

existence,  either  of  tlie  author,  or  of  the  work,  though  it 
tuay  have  been  performed  many  centuries  ago  ;  but  if 
neither  the  author  nor  the  work  now  remains,  it  cannot  be 
used.  We  may  say,  *  Cicero  has  nuritten  orations  ;'  but 
we  cannot  say,  *  Cicero  has  written  poems  :*  because  the 
orations  are  in  being,  but  the  poems  are  k)st.  Speaking 
t)f  priests  in  general,  we  may  say,  '  They  have  in  all  ages 
claimed  great  powers  ;'  because  the  general  order  of  the 
priesthood  still  exists  :  but  if  we  speak  of  the  Druids,  as 
any  particular  order  of  priests,  which  does  not  now  exist, 
we  cannot  use  this  tense.  We  cannot  say,  *  The  Druid 
priests  have  claimed  great  powers  ;'  but  must  say,  *  The 
Druid  priests  claimed  great  powers  ;'  because  that  order 
is  now  totally  extinct.  See  Pickbourn  on  the  English 
verb. 

The  Pluperfect  Tense  represents  a  thing,  not 
only  as  past,  but  also  as  prior  to  some  other 
point  of  time  specified  in  the  sentence  :  as,  *  I 
had  finished  my  letter  before  he  arrived.' 

The  First  Future  Tense  represents  the  action 
as  yet  to  come,  either  with  or  without  respect  to 
the  precise  time  :  as,  *  The  sun  will  rise  to- 
morrow  ;'  *  I  shall  see  them  again.' 

The  Second  Future  intimates  that  the  action 
will  be  fully  accomplished,  at  or  before  the  time 
of  another  future  action  or  event :  as,  *  I  shall 
have  dined  atone  o'clock;'  *  The  two  houses 
will  have  finished  their  business,  when  the  king 
comes  to  prorogue  them.' 

It  is  to  be  observed,  that  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  the 
event  being  spoken  of  under  a  condition  or  supposition,  or 
in  the  form  of  a  wish,  and  therefore  as  doubtful  and  con- 
tingent, the  verb  itself  in  the  present,  and  the  auxiliaiy 
both  of  the  present  and  past  imperfect  times,  often  carry 
with  them  somewhat  of  a  future  sense  :  as,  '  If  he  come 
to-morrow,  I  may  speak  to  him  ;'  *  If  he  should  or  would 
come  to-morrow,  I  might,  would,  could,  or  should  speak 
to  him.*     Observe  also,  that  the  auxiliaries^  should  and 


ETYMOLOGY.  75 

wBuldy  in  the  imperfect  times,  are  used  to  express  the 
present  and  future  as  well  as  the  past  :  as,  '  It  is  my  de- 
sire, that  he  should,  oi-  would,  come  now,  or  to-morrow  ;' 
as  well  as,  *  It  was  my  desire,  that  he  should  or  would, 
come  yesterday.'  So  that  in  this  mood  the  precise  time  of 
the  verb  is  very  much  determined  by  the  nature  and  drift 
of  the  sentence. 

The  present,  past,  and  future  tenses,  may  be  used  either 
dejinitcly  or  iiid ('finitely^  both  with  respect  to  tlmt  und  ac- 
tion. When  they  denote  customs  or  habits,  and  not  indi- 
vidual acts,  they  are  applied  indefinitely  :  as,  <  Virtue  iiro- 
motes  happiness  ;*  *  The  old  Romans  governed  by  benefits 
more  than  by  fear  ;'  '  I  shall  hereafter  employ  my  time 
more  usefully  '  In  these  examples,  the  words,  firoinotc&^ 
governed,,  and  s/iall  em/iloy^  are  used  indefinitely,  both  in 
regard  to  action  and  time  ;  for  they  are  not  confined  to  in- 
dividual actions,  nor  to  any  precise  points  of  present,  past, 
or  future  time.  When  they  are  applied  to  signify  particu- 
lar actions,  and  to  ascertain  the  precise  points  of  time  to 
which  they  are  confined,  they  are  used  definitely  :  as  in 
the  following  instances.  *  My  brother  is  writing  ;'  '  lie 
built  the  house  last  summer,  but  did  not  inhcbit  it  till  yes- 
terday.*    '  He  will  write  another  letter  to-morrow.' 

The  different  tenses  also  represent  an  action  as  comjilcte 
ox  perfect^  or  as  incomplete  or  imperfect.  In  the  phrases, 
'  I  am  writing,'  '  I  was  writing,'  *  I  shall  be  writing,' 
imperfect,  unfinished  actions  are  signified.  But  the  fol- 
lowing examples,  '  I  wrote,*  '  I  have  wiitten,'  '  I  had 
written,'  '  I  shall  have  written,'  all  denote  complete  per- 
fect action. 

From  the  preceding  representation  of  the  different  ten- 
ses, it  appears,  that  each  of  them  has  its  distinct  and  pe- 
culiar province  ;  and  that  though  some  of  them  may 
sometimes  be  used  promiscuously,  or  substituted  one  for 
another,  in  cases  where  great  accuracy  is  not  required,  yet 
there  is  a  real  and  essential  difference  in  their  meaning.... 
It  is  also  evident,  that  the  English  Language  contains  the 
six  tenses  which  we  have  enumerated.  Grammarians 
who  limit  the  number  to  two,  or  at  most  to  three,  namely 
the  present,  the  imperfect,  and  the  future,  do  no  reflect 
that  the  English  verb  is  mostly  composed  of  prh)cip:d  and 


7^  ENS-LISH    GRAMMAR. 

auxiliary  :  and  that  these  several  parts  constitute  one  verb,. 
Either  the  English  language  has  no  future  tense,  or  its 
future  is  composed  of  the  auxiliary  and  the  principal  verb. 
If  the  latter  be  true,  as  it  indisputably  is,  then  auxi!*  .ry 
and  principal  united,  constitute  a  tense,  in  one  instance  ; 
and,  from  reason  and  analogy,  may  doubtless  do  so,  in 
others,  in  which  minuter  divisions  of  time  are  necessary, 
or  useful.  What  reason  can  be  assigned  for  not  consider- 
ing this  case,  as  other  cases,  in  which  a  whole  is  regarded 
'A&  composed  of  several  parts,  or  of  principal  and  adjuncts  I 
There  is  nothing  heterogeneous  in  the  parts  :  and  prece- 
dent analogy,  utility,  and  even  neccasiity,  authoriae  the 
union. 

In  support  of  this  opinion,  we  have  the  authori!y  of  ena- 
inent  grammarians  ;  in  particular,  tliat  of  Dr.  Baattie. — 
*  Some  writers,'  says  the  doctor,  *  will  not  allow  any  thing 
to  be  a  tense,  but  what,  in  one  inflected  word,  expresses 
an  affirmation  with  time  ;  for  that  those  pans  of  the  verb 
are  no;  properly  called  tenses,  which  assume  that  appear- 
ance, by  means  of  auxiliary  words.  At  this  rate,  wc  should 
have,  in  English,  two  tenses  only,  the  present  and  the  past 
in  the  active  verb,  and  in  the  passive  no  tenses  at  all.  But 
this  is  a  needless  nicety  ;  and,  if  adopted,  would  introduce 
confusion  into  the  grammatical  art.  If  cwaveram  be  a 
tense,  why  should  not  amatus  fueram  ?  If  /  heard  be  a 
tense,  /  did  hear^  I  have  heard,  and  /  shali  hear^  must  be 
equally  entitled  to  that  appellation.' 

The  proper  form  of  a  tense,  in  the  Greek  and  Latin 
tongues,  is  certainly  that  which  it  has  in  the  grammars  of 
those  languages.  But  in  the  Greek  and  Latin  grammars, 
we  uniformly  find,  that  some  of  the  tenses  are  formed  by 
v;;ri;Uions  of  the  principal  verb  ;  and  others,  by  the  addi- 
tion of  helping  verbs.  It  is,  therefore,  indisputable,  that 
the  principal  verb  or  the  participle,  and  an  auxiliary,  con- 
stitute a  regular  tense  in  the  Greek  and  Latin  languages. 
This  point  being  established,  we  may,  doubtless,  apply  it 
to  English  verbs  ;  and  extend  the  principle  as  far  as  con- 
venience, and  the  idiom  of  our  language  require. 

If  it  should  be  said,  that,  on  the  same  ground  that  a  par- 
ticiple and  auxiliary  are  allowed  to  form  a  tense,  and  the 
verb  is  to  be  conjugated  accordingly,  the  English  noun  aud 


ETYMOLOGY.  7/ 

proncRin  ought  to  be  declined  at  large,  with  articles  and 
prepositions;  we  must  object  to  the  inference  Such  a 
mode  of  declension  cannot  apply  to  our  language.  This 
we  think  has  been  already  proved.*  It  is  also  confessedly 
inapplicable  to  the  learned  languages.  Where  then  is  the 
grammatical  inconsistency,  or  the  want  of  conformity  to  the 
principles  of  analogy,  in  making  some  tenses  of  the  En- 
glish verb  to  consist  of  principal  and  auxiliary  j  and  the 
cases  of  English  nouns,  chiefly  in  their  termination  ?  The 
argument  from  analogy,  instead  of  militating  against  us, 
appears  to  confirm  and  establish  our  position.  See  pages 
70— ri.     93 — 95.      98 — 101.      184 — 186. 

We  shall  close  these  remarks  on  the  tenses,  with  a  few 
observations  extracted  from  the  Encyclopaedia  Bri- 
TANNIC  A.  They  are  worth  the  student's  attention,  as  a 
part  of  them  applies,  not  only  to  our  explanation  of  the 
tenses,  but  to  many  other  parts  of  the  work.  *  Harris  has 
enumerated  no  fewer  than  twelve  tenses.  Of  this  enume- 
ration we  can  by  no  means  approve  :  for,  without  entering 
into  a  minute  examination  of  it,  nothing  can  be  more  ob- 
vious, than  that  his  incejit'we iirssenty  '  I  am  going  to  write,* 
is  a  future  tense  ;  and  bin' com/iletive  /ireserity  'I  have 
written,'  a  past  tense.  But,  as  was  before  observed  of  the 
classification  of  words,  we  cannot  help  being  of  opinion, 
that,  to  take  the  tenses  as  they  are  commonly  received,  and 
endeavour  to  ascertain  their  nature  and  their  differences, 
is  a  much  more  useful  exercise,  as  well  as  more  proper 
for  a  work  of  this  kind,  than  to  raise,  as  might  easily  be 
raised,  new  theories  on  the  subject.'! 

*  See  page  47. 

fThe  following"  criticism  affords  an  additional  support  to  the 
author's  system  of  the  tenses,  &.c. 

*  Under  the  head  of  Etymology,  the  author  of  this  grammar 
judiciously  adheres  to  the  natural  simplicity  of  the  English  lan- 
guage, without  embarrassing  the  learner  with  distinctions  pecu- 
liar to  the  Latin  tongue.  The  difficult  subject  of  the  Tenses,  is 
clearly  explained  :  and  with  less  encumbrance  of  technical  ]jhra- 
seoiogy  than  in  most  other  grammars.*  Analytical  Itavi^-a; 


78     ^  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

SECTION  6. 

The  Conjugation  of  the  auxiliary  verbs  to  have  afid  to  be. 

The  Conjugation  of  a  verb,  is  the  regular 
combination  and  arrangement  of  its  several  num- 
bers, persons,  moods,  and  tenses. 

The  Conjugation  of  an  active  verb  is  styled 
the  ACTIVE  VOICE  ;  and  that  of  a  passive  verb, 

the  PASSIVE   VOICE. 

The  auxiliary  and  active  verb  to  have  is 
conjugated  in  the  following  manner. 

TO  HAVE. 

INDICATIVB   MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular,  Plural, 

] .  Pers.  I  have.  1 .  We  have. 

2    Pers.  Thou  hast.  2.  Ye  or  you  have. 

3.  /".r.    He,  she,  or  it  >        3    They  have, 
hath  or  has.  3  ^ 

Imfierfect  Tense.* 
Singular,  Plural". 

1.  I  had.  I.  We  had. 

!>.  Thou  hadst;.  2.  Ye  or  you  had. 

3.  He,  &:c.  had.  3.  They  had. 
Perfect   Tense.'* 
Singular.  Plural. 

\.  I  have  had.  1.  We  have  had. 

2.  Thou  hast  had.  2.  Ye  or  you  have  had. 

3.  He  has  had.  3.  They  have  had. 

Pluperfect   Tense.* 
Singular,  Plural. 

1.  I  had  had.  1.  We  had  had. 

2.  Thou  hadst  had.  2.  Ye  or  you  had  had.. 

3.  He  had  had.  3.  They  had  had. 

*  The  terms  which  we  have  adopted,  to  desig-nate  the  three 
past  lenses,  may  not  be  exactly  significant  of  their  nature  and 
tilsiinclions.  But  as  they  are  used  by  grammarians  in  g'eneral, 
and  have  am  established  authority  ;  and,  especially,  as  the  mean- 
ing- attached  to  each  of  them,  and  their  different  sig-nifications 
kiivc  been  carefiiUy  explained  ;  we  presume  that  no  solid  obje«- 


ETYMOLocy.  /y 

First  Future  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

\.  I  shall  or  will  have.  1.  We  shall  or  will  have. 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  have.     2.Ye  or  you  shall  or  will  have. 

3.  He  shall  or  will  have.        3.  They  shall  or  will  have. 

Second  Future   Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1 .  I  shall  have  had.  I .  We  shall  have  had. 

2.  Thou  wilt  have  had.  2.  Ye  or  you  will  have  had. 

3.  He  will  have  had.  3.  They  will  have  had. 

IMPERATIVE    M90D. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1 .  Let  me  have.  1 .  Let  us  have. 

2.  Have,  or  have  thou,  or      2.  Have,  or  have  ye,  or  do 

do  thou  have.  ye  or  you  have. 

3.  Let  him  have.  3.  Let  them  have.* 

The  imperative  mood  is  not  strictly  entitled  to  three 
persons.  The  command  is  always  addressed  to  the  second 
person,  not  to  the  first  or  third  For  when  we  say,  *Let 
me  have,*  '  Let  him,  or  let  them  have,'  the  meaning  and 
construction  are,  do  thou  or  do  ?/<?,  let  me,  him,  or  them 
have .  In  philosophical  strictness,  both  number  and  person 
might  be  entirely  excluded  from  every  verb.  They  are, 
in  fact,  the  properties  of  substantives,  not  a  part  of  the  es- 
sence of  a  verb.  Even  the  name  of  \\\q  imfierative  wioq^ 
does  not  always  correspond  to  its  nature  :  for  it  sometimes 
fietitions  as  well  as  commands.  But,  with  respect  to  all 
these  points,  the  practice  of  our  grammarians  is  so  uni- 
formly fixed,  and  so  analogous  to  the  languages,  ancient, 
and  modern,  which  our  youth  have  to  study,  that  it  would 

tion  can  be  made  to  the  use  of  terms  so  g-enerally  approved,  and 
so  explicitly  defined.  See  pages  77  and  79.  We  are  supported 
in  these  sentiments,  by  the  authority  of  Dr.  Johnson.  See  the 
first  note  in  his  '  Grammar  of  the  English  Tongue,'  prefixed  to 
bis  Dictionary.  If,  howeveiv  any  teachers  should  think  it  war- 
rantable to  change  the  established  names,  they  cannot  perhaps 
find  any  more  appropriate,  than  the  terms  first  praeterit^  second 
praeterit,  and  third  praeterit. 

*  If  s'lch  sentences  should  be  rig'orously  examined,  the  Im- 
perative will  appear  to  consist  merely  \\\  the  word  kt,  S^e 
Faviin^,  p.  204. 


11^ 


80  ENGLISH    GRAKMAR. 

be  an  unwarrantable  degree  of  innovation,  to  deviate  from- 
the  established  terms  and  arrangements.  See  the  adver- 
tisement at  the  end  of  the  Introduction,  page  7  ;  and  the 
quotation  from  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  page  68. 

POTENTIAL    MOOD. 

Present  Tense, 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may  or  can  have.  1.  We  may  or  can  have. 

2.  Thou  mayst  or  canst  have.  2-  Ye  or  you  may  or  can  have. 

3.  He  may  or  can  have.  3.  They  may  or  can  have. 

Imperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  might,  could,  would,  or  1.  We  might,  could,  would, 
should  have.  or  should  have. 

2.  Thou  mightst,  couldst,  2.  Ye  or  you  might,  could, 
wouldst,  or  shouldst  have.       would,  or  should  have. 

3.  He  might,  eould,  would,  3.  They  might,  could,  would, 
or  should  have,  or  should  have. 

Perfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may  or  can  have  had.       1.  We  may  or  can  have  had. 

2.  Thou  mayst  or  canst  have  2.  Ye  or  you  may  or  can  have 
had.  had. 

3.  He  may  or  can  have  had.  3.  Theyraay  or  can  have  had. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

r.  I  might,  could,  would,  or  1 .  We  might,  could,  would, 
should  have  had.  or  should  have  had. 

2.  Thou  mightst,  couldst,  2.  Ye  or  you  might,  could, 
wouldst,  or  shouldst  have  would,  or  should  have  had. 
had. 

3.  He  might,  could,  would,  3.  They  might,  could,  would, 
or  should  have  had.  or  should  have  had.* 

*  Shall  20L\(i  will,  when  they  denote  inclination,  resolution,  pro- 
mise, may  be  considered,  as  well  as  their  relations  should  and 
■would,  as  belonging  to  the  potential  mood.  But  as  they  generally 
signify  fuiurity,  they  have  been  appropriated,  as  helping  verbs, 
to  the  formation  of  the  future  tenses  of  the  indicative  and  sub- 
junctive moods. 


ETYMOLOGY.  81 

SUBJUNCTiVE    MOOD. 

Present  Tense, 
miigular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  have.  i.  If  we  have. 

2.  If  thou  have.*  2.  If  ye  or  you  have. 

3.  If  he  have.*  3.  If  they  have. 

The  remaining  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  mood,  are,  in 
every  respect,  similar  to  the  correspondent  teiiSes  of  the 
indicative  mood  ;t  with  the  addition  to  the  verb,^  of  a  con- 
junction, expressed  or  implied,  denoting  a  condition,  mo- 
tive, wish,  supposition,  &c.  It  will  be  proper  to  direct 
the  learner  to  repeat  all  the  tenses  of  this  mood,  with  a 
conjunction  prefixed  to  each  of  them.  See  on  this  sub- 
ject, the  observations  at  page  93  ;  and  the  notes  on  the 
nineteenth  rule  of  syntax. 

INFiailTIVE    MOOD. 

Present.     To  have.         Perfect.     To  have  had. 
Participles. 

Present  or  Active.  Having. 

Perfect.  Had. 

Comfiound  Perfect.  Having  had. 
As  the  subjunctive  mood,  m  English,  has  no  variation, 
in  the  form  of  the  verb,  from  the  indicative  (except  in  the 
present  tense,  and  the  second  future  tense,  of  verbs  gene- 
rally, and  the  present  and  imperfect  tenses  of  the  verb  to 
be)  it  would  be  superfluous  to  conjugate  it  in  this  work, 
through  every  tense.  But  all  the  other  moods  and  tenses 
of  the  verbs,  both  in  the  active  and  passive  voices,  are 
conjugated  at  large,  that  the  learners  may  have  no  doubts 
or  misapprehensions  respecting  their  particular  forms. 
They  to  whom  the  subject  of  grammar  is  entirely  new, 
and  young  persons  especially,  are  much  more  readily  and 

*  Grammarians,  in  general,  conjugate  the  present  of  the 
auxiliary  in  this  manner.  But  we  presume  that  this  is  the  form 
of  the  verb,  considered  as  a  principal^  not  as  an  axixiUai^  verb. 
See  pug-e  183,  Note  5. 

f  Except  the  second  and  third  persons  singular  and  plural,  of 
tlie  second  future  tense,  require  the  auxiliary  shalty  s/iall,  instead 
of  7vilif  tvill.  Thus,  *  He  -will  have  completed  ihe  work  by  Hiid- 
summor,'  is  the  indicative  form:  but  the  subjunctive  is,  *lfh© 
ball  have  completed  the  work  by  midsummer/ 


i 


S2  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

effectually  instructed,  by  seeing  the  parts  of  a  subject  s& 
Essential  as  the  verb,  unfolded  and  spread  before  them,  in 
£.11  their  varieties,  than  by  being  generally  and  cursorily  in- 
formed ef  the  manner  in  which  they  may  be  exhibited. 
The  time  employed  by  the  scholars,  in  consequence  of  this 
display  of  the  verbs,  is  of  small  moment,  compared  with 
the  advantages  which  they  will  probably  derive  from  the 
plan. 

It  may  not,  however,  be  generally  proper  for  young 
persons  beginning  the  study  of  grammar,  to  commit  to 
memoiy  all  the  tenses  of  the  verbs.  If  the  simfile  tenses, 
namely,  the  present  and  the  imperfect^  together  with  the 
j^rst  future  tense.,  should,  in  the  first  instance,  be  commit- 
ted to  memory,  and  the  rest  carefully  perused  and  explain- 
ed, tlie  business  will  not  be  tedious  to  the  scholars,  and 
their  progress  will  be  rendered  mere  obvious  and  pleasing. 
The  general  view  of  the  subject,  thus  acquii'ed  and  im- 
pressed, may  afterwards  be  extended  with  ease  and  advan- 
tage. 

It  appears  to  be  proper,  for  the  information  of  the  learn- 
ers, to  make  a  few  observations,  in  this  place,  on  some  of 
the  tenses,  &c.  The  first  is,  that,  in  the  potential  mood, 
some  grammarians  confound  the  present  with  the  imper- 
fect tense  :  and  the  perfect  with  the  pluperfect.  But 
that  they  are  really  distinct,  and  have  an  appropriate  refer- 
ence to  time,  correspondent  to  the  definitions  of  those 
tenses,  will  appear  from  a  few  examples  :  *  I  wished  him 
to  stay,  but  he  would  not ;'  *  I  could  not  accomplish  the 
business  in  time  ;'  '  It  was  my  direction  that  he  should 
submit ;'  '  He  was  ill,  but  I  thought  he  7night  live  ;'  *  I 
may  have  misunderstood  him  ;*  ^  He  cannot  have  deceived 
me  ;*  '  He  might  have  finished  the  work  sooner,  but  he 
could  not  have  done  it  better.* — It  must,  however,  be  ad- 
mitted, that,  on  some  occasions,  the  auxiliaries  might, 
.could,  would,  and  should,  refer  also  to  present  and  to  fu- 
ture time.     See  page  74. 

The  next  remark  is,  that  the  auxiliary  ivill^  in  the  first 
person  singular  and  plural  of  the  second  future  tense  :  and 
the  auxiliary  shall.,  in  the  second  and  third  persons  of  that 
tense,  in  the  indicative  mood,  appear  to  be  incorrectly  ap- 
plied.    The  impropriety  of  such  associ<\tions  may  be  in- 


ETYMOLOGY.  83 

feiTed  from  a  few  examples  :  *  I  nvill  have  had  previous 
notice,  whenever  the  event  happens  ;'  '  Thou  shalt  have 
served  thy  apprenticeship  before  the   end  of  the  year  ;* 

*  He  shall  have  completed  his  business  when  the  messen- 
ger arrives.'  *  I  shall  have  had  ;  thou  wilt  have  served  ; 
he  ivill  have  completed,'  Sec.  would  have  been  correct  and 
applicable.  The  peculiar  import  of  these  auxiliaries,  as 
explaiaed  in  page  89,  under  section  7,  seems  to  account 
for  their  impropriety  in  the  applications  just  mentioned. 

Some  writers  on  Grammar  object  to  the  propriety  of 
admitting  the  second  future,  in  both  the  mdicative  and  sub- 
junctive moods  :  but  that  this  tense  is  applicable  to  both 
moods,  will  be  manifest  from  the  following  examples. — 

*  John  v/ill  have  earned  his  wages  the  next  newyear's  day,* 
is  a  simple  declaration,  and  therefore  in  the  indicative 
mood :  '  If  he  shall  have  finished  his  work  when  the  bell 
rings,  he  will  be  entitled  to  the  reward,'  is  conditional  and 
■contingent,  and  is  therefore  in  the  subjunctive  mood. 

We  shall  conclude  these  detached  observations,  with 
one  remark  which  may  be  useful  to  the  young  scholar, 
namely,  that  as  the  indicative  mood  is  converted  into  the 
subjunctive,  by  the  expression  of  a  condition,  motive,  wish, 
supposition,  8cc.  being  superadded  to  it ;  so  the  potential 
mood  may,  in  like  manner,  be  turned  into  the  subjunctive  ; 
as  win  be  seen  in  the  following  examples  :  <  If  I  could  de- 
ceive him,  I  should  abhor  it  ;*  *  Though  he  should  en- 
crease  in  wealth,  he  would  not  be  charitable  ;'  *  Even  in 
prosperity  he  would  gain  no  esteem,  unless  he  should 
conduct  himself  better.' 

The  auxiliary  and  neuter  verb  To  be,  is  con- 
jugated as  follows  : 


TO  BE. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 


I  ....... 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  am.  1.  We  are. 

2.  Thou  art.  2.  Ye  or  you  arc. 
5.  He,  she,  or  it  is.  3.  They  arc. 


84  ENGLISH    6BAMMAR, 

Imfierfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  was.  1.  We  were. 

2.  Thou  wast.  2.  Ye  or  you  were. 

3.  He  was.  3.  They  were. 

Perfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1 .  I  have  been.  1 .  We  have  been. 

2.  Thou  hast  been.  2.  Ye  or  you  have  been, 

3.  He  hath  or  has  been.         3.  They  have  been. 

Plujierfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  had  been.  1.  We  had  been. 

2.  Thou  hadst  been.  2.  Ye  or  you  had  been. 

3.  He  had  been.  3.  They  had  been. 

First  Future  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

\.  I  shall  or  will  be.  1.  We  shall  or  will  be. 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  be.       2.  Ye  or  you  shall  or  will  be. 

3.  He  shall  or  will  be.  3.  They  shall  or  will  be. 

Second  Future  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

i.  I  shall  have  been.  1.  We  shall  have  been. 

2.  Thou  wilt  have  been.        2.  Ye  or  you  will  have  been. 
S.  He  will  have  been.  3 .  They  will  have  been. 

IMPERATIVE    MOOD. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  Let  me  be.  1.  Let  us  be. 

2    Be  thou  or  do  thou  be.  2.  Be  ye  or  you,  or  do  ye  be. 

3.  Let  him  be.  3.  Let  them  be. 

POTENTIAL    MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may  or  can  be.  1.  We  may  or  can  be. 

2.  Thou  mayst  or  canst  be.  2.  Ye  or  you  may  or  can  be. 

3.  He  may  or  can  be.  3.  They  may  or  can  be. 


&TYUOLOCT, 


85. 


Imperfect  Tense* 


Singular, 
i.  I  might,  could,  would, 

or  should  be. 
2.  Thou  mightst,  couldst, 

wouldst,  or  shouldst  be. 
5.  He  might,  could,  would, 

or  should  be. 


Plural. 

1.  We  might,  could,  would, 
or  should  be. 

2.  Ye  or  you  might,  could, 
would,  or  should  be. 

3.  They  might,  could,  would, 
or  should  be. 


Perfect  Tense. 
Singular,  Plural. 

1 .  I  may  or  can  have  been.     1 .  We  may  or  can  have  been. 

2.  Thou   mayest  or  canst     2.  Ye  or  you  may  or  can  have 
have  been.  been. 

3.  He  mayor  can  have  been.  3.  They  may  or  can  have  been. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 


Singular, 

1.  I  might,  could,  would, 
or  should  have  been. 

2.  Thou  mightst,  couldst, 
wouldst,  or  shouldst  have 
been. 

3.  He  might,  could,  would, 
or  should  have  been. 


Plural. 

1.  We  might,  could,  would, 
or  should  have  been. 

2.  Ye  or  you  might,  could, 
would,  or  should  have 
been. 

3.  They  might,  could,  would, 
or  should  have  been. 


SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD. 

Present  Tense, 

Plural. 

1.  If  we  be. 

2.  If  ye  or  you  bC 

3.  If  they  be. 
Imperfect  Tense. 

Plural. 

1.  If  we  were. 

2.  If  ye  or  you  werd. 

3.  If  they  were. 

The  remaining  tenses  of  this  mood  are,  in  general,  sim- 
ilar to  the  correspondent  tenses  of  the  Indicative  Mood. 
See  pages  83,  93,  94,  and  the  notes  under  the  nineteenth 
rule  of  syntax. 

INFINITIVE    MOOD. 

Present  Tense,  To  be.        Perfect,  To  have  been. 
H 


1. 

2. 

Singular, 
If  I  be. 
If  thou  be. 
If  he  be. 

1. 
2. 
3. 

Singular, 
If  I  were. 
If  thou  wert. 
If  he  were. 

8G  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present.  Being.  Perfect.  Been. 

Comfiound  Perfect.  Having  been. 

SECTION  r. 

The  atixllianj  Verbs  conjugated  in  their  simple  form  ;  vMh 
observations  on  their  fieculiar  nature  and  force. 

The  learner  will  perceive  that  the  preceding  auxiliary 
verbs,  to  have  and  to  be,  could  not  be  conjugated  through 
all  the  moods  and  tenses,  without  the  help  of  other  aux- 
iliaiy  verbs  ;  namely,  may,  can,  will,  shall,  and  their  va- 
riations. 

That  auxiliary  verbs,  in  their  simple  state,  and  unassist- 
ed by  others,  are  of  a  very  limited  extent ;  and  that  they 
are  chiefly  useful,  in  the  aid  which  they  afford  in  conjugat- 
ing the  principal  verbs  ;  will  clearly  appear  to  the  scholar, 
by  a  distinct  conjugation  of  each  of  them,  uncombined 
with  any  other.  They  are  exhibited  for  his  inspection  ; 
not  to  be  committed  to  memory. 

TO  HAVE. 
Present  Tense. 
Sing.  1 . 1  have.       2.  Thou  hast.  3.  He  hatli  or  has. 

Plur.  1.  We  have.  2.  Ye  or  you  have.  3.  They  have. 

Imfierfect  Tense. 
Sing.  1. 1  had.         2.  Thou  hadst.        3.  He  had. 
Plur.  1.  We  had.    3.  Ye  or  you  had.    3.  Thej  had. 
Perfect.  I  have  had,  Sec.  Pluperfect,  I  had  had,  &c. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present.  Having.  Perfect.  Had. 

TO  BE. 
Present  Tense. 
Sing.  I.  I  am.  2.  Thou  art.  3.  He  is. 

Plur.  1.  We  are.     2.  Ye  or  you  are.     3.  They  are. 

Imfierfect   Tense, 
Sing.  1. 1  was.        2.  Thou  wast  3.  He  was. 

Plur.  I.  We  were.  2.  Ye  or  you  were.  3.  They  were. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present.  Being.  Perfect.  Bctn, 


ETYMOLOGY, 


87 


SHALL. 

Present  Tense, 

Sing. 

1.  Is]- all.* 

2.  Thou  shalt.           3. 

He  shall. 

Plur. 

I.  We  shall. 

2.  Ye  or  you  shall.  3. 

Imfierfect   Tense. 

They  shall. 

Sing. 

1.  I  should. 

2.  Thou  shouldst. 

3.  He  should. 

Plur. 

1.  We  should 

.  2.  Ye  or  you  should. 

WILL. 

Present  Tense. 

3.  They  should. 

Sing. 

1.  I  will. 

2.  Thou  wilt.           3. 

He  will. 

Plur. 

I.  We  will. 

2.  Ye  or  you  will.    3. 
Imfierfect   Tense, 

They  will. 

Sing. 

I.  I  would. 

2.  Thou  wouldst.      3. 

He  would. 

Plur. 

I. We  would 

.  2.  Ye  or  you  would.  3. 
J\UY. 

Present   Tense. 

They  would. 

Sing. 

1 . 1  may. 

2.  Thou  mayst.       3. 

He  may. 

Plur. 

I.  W^e  may. 

2.  Ye  or  you  may.  3. 
Imfierfect   Tense. 

They  may. 

Si?ig. 

1 .  I  might. 

2.  Thou  mightst 

3.  He  might. 

Plur. 

1.  We  might.  2.  Ye  or  you  might. 

3.  They  might. 

CA,Y. 

Present  Tense. 

Sing. 

1.  lean. 

2.  Thou  canst.         5. 

.  He  can. 

Plur, 

1.  Wectin. 

2.  Ye  or  you  can.     3. 
I  ifierfect  Tense. 

.  They  can. 

Sing. 

1.  I  could. 

2.  Thou  couldst.      3. 

He  could. 

Plur. 

1.  We  could.  2.  Ye  or  you  could.  3. 

.  They  could. 

TO  no. 

Present  Tense. 

Sing. 

l.Ido. 

2.  Thou  dost.           3. 

He  doth  or  does. 

J^lur. 

1.  We  do. 

2.  Ye  or  you  do.      3. 

Imperfect   Tense. 

.  They  do. 

Sing. 

1.  I  did. 

2.  Thou  didst.          3. 

He  did. 

Plur. 

,  1.  We  did. 

2.  Ye  or  you  did.     3. 

They  did. 

•  Shall  is  here  properly  used  in  the  present  tense,  having-  tlie 
sime  analop^-y  to  ehould  that  can  has  to  cvtdd,  may  to  mi^hi,  and 
'will  to  i^sulcl. 


S3  ENGLISH    GRAMHIAR. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present.  Doing.  Perfect.  Done. 

The  verbs  have^  be,  ivill,  and  do,  when  they  are  uncon- 
nected with  a  principal  verb,  expressed  or  understood, 
are  not  auxiliaries,  but  principal  verbs :  as,  *  We  have 
enough  ;'  *  I  am  grateful  ;*  '  He  wills  it  to  be  so  ;*  *  They 
do  as  they  please.'  In  this  view,  they  also  have  their 
auxiliaries  :  as,  *  I  shall  have  enough  ;'  '  I  will  be  grate- 
ful,' &c. 

The  peculiar  force  of  the  several  auxiliaries  will  appeaf 
from  the  following  account  of  them. 

Do  and  did  mark  the  action  itself,  or  the  time  of  it,  with 
greater  energy  and  positiveness  :    as,  *  I  do  speak  truth  ;' 

*  I  did  respect  him  ;'  '  Here  am  I,  for  thou  didst  call  me.* 
They  are  of  great  use  in  negative  sentences  :  as,  '  I  do 
not  fear  ;*  '  I  did  not  write.*  They  are  almost  universally 
employed  in  asking  questions  :  as,  *  Docs  he  learn  ?*  *  Did 
he  not  write  ?*  They  sometimes  also  supply  the  place  of 
another  verb,  and  make  the  repetition  of  it,  in  the  same 
or  a  subsequent  sentence,  unnecessary  :  as,  *  You  attend 
not  to  your  studies  as  he  does  ;'  (i.  e.  as  he  attends,  Sec.) 

*  I  shall  come  if  I  can  ;  but  if  I  do  not,  please  to  excuse 
me  ;*  (i.  e.  if  I  come  not.) 

L,et  not  only  expresses  penmission,  but  entreating,  ex* 
horting,  commanding  ;  as,  *  Let  us  know  the  truth  ;'  '  Let 
me  die  the  death  of  the  righteous  ;*  *  Let  not  thy  heart  be 
too  much  elated  with  success ;'  *  Let  thy  inclination  sub- 
mit to  thy  duty.* 

May  and  might  express  the  possibility  or  liberty  of  do- 
ing a  thing  ;  can  and  could,  the  power  :  as  *  It  may  rain  ;* 
*■  I  may  write  or  read  ;'  *  He  might  have  improved  more 
than  he  has  ;'  '  He  can  write  much  better  than  he  could 
last  year.* 

Must  is  sometimes  called  in  for  a  helper,  and  denotes 
necessity  :  as,  <  We  must  speak  the  truth,  whenever  we 
do  speak,  and  must  not  prevaricate.* 

Will,  in  the  first  person  singular  and  plural,  intimates 
resolution  and  promising  ;  in  the  second  and  third  per- 
son, only  foretells  :  as,  *  I  will  reward  the  good,  and  will 
punish  the  wicked  ;*  <  We  will  remember  benefits,  and 


ETYMOLOGY.  89 

be  grateful  ;*  *  Thou  wilt,  or  he  M'ill,  repent  of  that  folly  ;' 

*  You  or  they  will  have  a  pleasant  walk.* 

Shall^  on  the  contrary,  in  the  first  person,  simply  fore- 
tells ;  in  the  second  and  third  persons,  promises,  com- 
mands, or  threatens  :  as,  '  I  shall  go  abroad  ;'  '  We  shall 
dine  at  home  ;*  <  Thou  shalt,  or  you  shall  inherit  the 
land  :*  *  Ye  shall  do  justice,  and  love  mercy  ;*  *  They  shall 
account  for  their  misconduct.'  The  following  passage  is 
not  translated  according  to  the  distinct  and  proper  mean- 
ings of  the  words  shall  and  loill :  '  Surely  goodness  and 
mercy  shall  follow  me  all  the  days  of  my  life  ;  and  I  will 
dwell  in  the  house  of  the  Lord  for  ever  ;*  it  ought  to  be,- 
<  Will  follow  me,'  and  *  I  shall  dwell'—The  foreigner 
who,  as  it  is  said,  fell  into  the  Thames,  and  cried  out ;  '  I 
it>ill  be  drowned,  no  body  shall  help  me  ;'  made  a  sad  mis- 
application of  these  auxiliaries. 

These  observations  respecting  the  import  of  the  verbs 
tvill  and  shall^  must  be  understood  of  explicative  senten- 
ces ;  for  when  the  sentence  is  interrogative,  just  the  re- 
verse, for  the  most  part,  takes  place  j  thus,  '  I  shall  go  ; 
you  will  go  ,*  express  event  only  :  but,  '  ivill  you  go  ?* 
imports  intention  ;  and,  *  shall  I  go  V  refers  to  the  will 
of  another.  But,  *  he  shall  go,*  and  *  s/iall  he  go  ?*  both 
imply  will ;  expressing  or  refprring  to  a  command. 

When  the  verb  is  put  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  the 
meaning  of  these  auxiliaries  likewise  undergoes  some  al- 
teration ;  as  the  learners  will  readily  perceive  by  a  few 
examples  :  *  He  shall  proceed,'  *  If  he   shall  proceed  ;' 

*  You  shall  consent,'  '  If  yeu  shall  consent.'  These  aux- 
iliaries are  sometimes  interchanged,  in  the  indicative  and 
subjunctive  moods,  to  convey  the  same  meaning  of  the 
auxiliary  :  as,  <  He  ivill  not  return,'  <  If  he  shah  not  re- 
turn ;'  '  He  shall  not  return,'  *  If  he  ivill  not  return.*" 

Would,  primarily  denotes  inclination  of  will ;  imdshouldy 
obligation :  but  they  both  vary  their  import,  and  arc  often 
used  to  express  simple  event. 

m 


90  «         EKGIISH    GRAMMAR." 

SECTION  8. 

The  Conjugation  of  Regular  Verbs* 

ACTIVE. 

Verbs  Active  are  called  Regular,  when  they 
form  their  imperfect  tense  of  the  indicative  mood, 
and  their  perfect  participle,  by  adding  to  the  verb, 
edj  or  d  only  when  the  verb  ends  in  e  :  as, 

Present.  Imperfect.  Perf  Particip. 

I  favour.  I  favoured.  Favoured. 

I  love.  I  loved.  Loved. 

A  Regular  x\ctive  Verb  is  conjugated  in  the 
following  manner. 

TO  LOVE. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1 .  I  love.*  1 .  We  love. 

2.  Thou  lovest.  2.  Ye  or  you  lo^e. 

3.  He,  she,  or  it,  loveth  or  loves.    3.  They  love. 

Imperfect  Tense, 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  loved.  1.  We  loved. 

2.  Thou  lovedst.  2.  Ye  or  you  love^. 

3.  He  loved.  3.  They  loved. 

Perfect  Teiise. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1 .  I  have  loved-  1 .  We  have  loved. 

2.  Thou  hast  loved.  2.  Ye  or  you  have  love^ 

3.  He  hath  or  has  loved.       3.  They  have  loved. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural, 

A .  I  had  loved.  1 .  We  had  loved. 

a.  Thouhadst  loved.  2.  Ye  or  you  hadlove^, 

<5.  He  had  loved.  3.  They  had  loved. 

*  In  the  present  and  imperfect  tenses,  we  use  a  different  form 
Gf  tlie  verb,  when  we  mean  to  express  energy  and  positivencss  : 
tis,  '  I  rftf  love  ;  ihou  do<it  tevc  ;  ke  d^es  lore  ;  I  did  love  ;  tlifiii 
iiii^.  l«ve  ;  he  ^^i  lerci' 


I 


ETYMOLOGir.  91 

First  Future  Tense. 
Singular,  Plural. 

r.  I  shall  or  will  love.  1.  We  shall  or  will  love. 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  love.     2.  Ye  or  you  shall  or  will  love. 

3.  He  shall  or  will  love.         3.  They  shall  or  will  love. 

Second  Future  Tense* 
Singular,  Plural. 

1 .  I  shall  have  loved.  1 .  We  shall  have  loved. 

2.  Thou  wilt  hare  loved.       2.  Ye  or  you  will  have  love«i. 

3.  He  will  have  loved.  3.  They  will  have  loved. 
Those  tenses  are  called  simple  tenses,  which  are  form- 
ed of  the  principal,  without  an  auxiliary  verb  :  as,  *  I 
love,  I  loved.*  The  compound  tenses  are  such  as  cannot 
be  formed  without  an  auxiliary  verb  :  as,  *  I  have  loved  ; 
I  had  loved  ;  I  shall  or  tvill  love  ;  I  may  love  ;  I  may  be 
loved  ;  I  may  have  been  loved  ;*  Sec  These  compoiinds 
are,  however,  to  be  considered  as  only  different  forms  of 
the  same  verb. 

IMPERATIVE    MOOD. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  Let  me  love.  1.  Let  us  love. 

2.  Love,  or  love  thou,  or  do  2.  Love,  or  love  ye,  or  yoiJ, 
thou  love.  or  do  ye  love. 

0.  Let  him  love.  3.  Let  them  love. 

POTENTIAL    MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

j .  I  may  or  can  love.  1 .  We  may  or  can  love. 

2.  Thou  mayst  or  canst  love.  2.  Ye  or  you  mayor  can  love. 

3.  He  may  or  can  love.  3.  They  may  or  can  love. 

Imfier/ect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1 .  I  might,  could,  would,  or  1 .  We  might,  could,  woultj^ 
should  love.  or  should  love. 

2.  Thou  mightst,    couldst,  2.  Ye  or  you  might,  could, 
wouldst,  or  shouldst  love.        would,  or  should  love. 

3.  He  might,  could,  would,  3.  They  might,  could,  woulc?, 
•r  should  loye.  »r  should  love. 


92  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may  or  can  have  loved.  1 .  We  may  or  can  have  loveil. 

2.  Thou  mayst  or  canst  have  2 .  Ye  or  you  may  or  can  hav^ 
loved.  loved. 

3.  He  may  or  can  have  3.  They  may  or  can  have 
loved.  loved. 

Plufierfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  might,  could,  would,  or  1.  We  might,  could,  would, 
should  have  loved.  or  should  have  loved. 

2.  Thou  mightst,  couldst,  2.  Ye  or  you  might,  could, 
wouldst,  or  ahouldst  have  would,  or  should  have 
loved.  loved. 

3.  He  might,  could,  would,  3.  They  might,  could,  would^ 
or  should  have  loved.  or  should  have  loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD. 

Present   Tense. 
Singular,  Plural. 

1.  If  I  love.  1.  If  we  love. 

2.  If  ihou  love.  2.  If  ye  or  you  love. 

3.  If  he  love.  3.  If  they  love. 

The  remaining  tenses  of  this  mood,  are,  in  general, 
similar  to  the  correspondent  tenses  of  the  indicative  mood. 
See  page  83  and  page  93. 

It  may  be  of  use  to  the  scholar,  to  remark,  in  this  place, 
that  though  only  the  conjunction  if  is  affixed  to  the  verb, 
any  other  conjunction  proper  for  the  subjunctive  mood, 
.may,  with  equal  propriety,  be  occasionally  annexed.  The 
instance  given  is  sufficient  to  explain  the  subject :  more 
would  be  tedious,  and  tend  to  embarrass  the  learner. 

INFINITIVE    MOOD. 

Present.     To  love.  Perfect.     To  have  loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present.     Loving.  Perfect.     Loved. 

Compound  Perfect.     Having  loved. 
The  active  verb  may  be  conjugated  differently,  by  add- 
ing its  present  or  active  participle  to  the  auxiliaiy  verb  to 
£»(?,  through  all  its  moods  and  tenses ;  as,  instead  of  *  I 
teach,  thou  teachest,  he  teaches/  &c,  we  may  say,  *  I  am 


ETYMOLOGY.'  93 

reaching,  thou  art  teaching,  he  is  teaching,  8cc.  and  in- 
stead of  *  I  taught,*  &c.  *  I  was  teaching,*  &c.  and  so  on,^ 
through  all  the  variations  of  the  auxiliary.  This  mode  of 
conjugation  has,  on  particular  occasions,  a  peculiar  pro- 
priety ;  and  contributes  to  the  harmony  and  precision  of 
the  language.  These  forms  of  expression  are  adapted  to 
particular  acts,  not  to  general  habits,  or  affections  of  the 
mind.  They  are  very  frequently  applied  to  neuter  verbs ; 
as,  <  I  am  musing  ;  he  is  sleeping.'* 

Some  grammarians  apply,  what  is  called  the  conjunc- 
tive termi7iationy  to  the  persons  of  the  principal  verb,  and 
to  its  auxiliaries,  through  all  the  tenses  of  the  subjunctive 
mood.  But  this  is  certainly  contrary  to  the  practice  of 
good  writers.  Johnson  applies  this  termination  to  the 
present  and  perfect  tenses  only.  Lowth  restricts  it  en- 
tirely to  the  present  tense  ;  and  Priestley  confines  it  to  the 
present  and  imperfect  tenses.  This  difference  of  opinion 
amongst  grammarians  of  such  eminence,  may  have  contri- 
buted to  that  diversity  of  practice,  so  observable  in  the  use 
of  the  subjunctive  mood.  Uniformity  in  this  point  is  high- 
ly desirable.  It  would  materially  assist  both  teachers  and 
learners  j  and  would  constitute  a  considerable  improve- 
ment in  our  language.  On  this  subject,  we  adopt  the 
opinion  of  Dr.  Lowth ;  and  conceive  we  are  fully  war- 
ranted by  his  authority?  and  that  of  the  most  correct  and 
elegant  writers,  in  limiting  the  conjunctive  termination  of 
the  principal  verb,  to  the  second  and  third  persons  singu- 
lar of  the  /iresenC  tense. 

Grammarians  have  not  only  differed  in  opinion,  respect- 
ing the  extent  and  variations  of  the  subjunctive  mood,  but 
a  few  of  them  have  even  doubted  the  existence  of  such  a 
mood  in  the  English  language.  These  writers  assert, 
that  the  verb  has  no  variation  from  the  indicative ;  and 
that  a  conjunction  added  to  the  verb,  gives  it  no  title  to 
become  a  distinct  mood ;  or  at  most,  no  better  than  it 
would  have,  if  any  other  p^ticle  were  joined  to  it.     To 

*  As  the  participle,  inthii^mode  of  conjugation,  performs  the 
office  of  a  verb,  through  all  the  moods  and  tenses  ;  and  as  it  im- 
plies the  idea  of  time,  and  governs  the  objective  case  of  nouns 
and  pronouns,  in  the  same  manner  as  verbs  do  ;  is  it  not  manifest, 
that  it  is  a  species  or  form  of  the  verb,  and  that  it  canoot  be  pro- 
perly considered  as  a  distinct  part  of  speech  ^ 


^i  EJJGLISH    GRAMMAR.' 

these  observations  it  may  be  replied;  1st.  It  is  evidetltf 
on  inspection)  that,  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  the  present 
tense  of  the  principal  verbs,  the  present  and  imperfect 
tenses  of  the  verb  to  be,  and  the  second  and  third  persons, 
in  both  numbers,  of  the  second  future  tense  of  all  verbs  ;* 
require  a  variation  from  the  forms  which  those  tenses  have 
in  the  indicative  mood.  So  much  difference  in  the  form 
€>f  the  verb,  would  warrant  a  correspondent  distinction  of 
mood,  though  the  remaining-  parts  of  the  subjunctive  were, 
in  all  respects,  similar  to  those  of  the  indicative.  In  other 
languages,  a  principle  of  this  nature  has  been  admitted, 
l)oth  in  the  conjugation  of  verbs,  and  the  declension  of 
nouns.  2d.  There  appears  to  be  as  much  propriety,  in 
giving  a  conjunction  the  power  of  assisting  to  form  the 
subjunctive  mood,  as  there  is  in  allowing  the  particle  to 
to  have  an  effect  in  the  fonnation  of  the  infinitive  mood.t 
3d.  A  conjunction  added  to  the  verb,  shows  the  manner 
of  being,  doing,  or  suffering,  which  other  particles  can- 
not show  :  they  do  not  coalesce  with  the  verb,  and  modify 
it,  as  conjunctions  do-  4th.  It  may  be  said,  *  If  contingen- 
cy constitutes  the  subjunctive  mood,  then  it  is  the  sense 
of  a  phrase,  and  not  a  conjunction,  that  determines  this 
mood.'  But  a  little  reflection  will  show,  that  the  contin- 
gent sense  lies  in  the  meaning  and  force  of  the  conjunc- 
tion, expressed  or  understood. 

This  subject  may  be  farther  illustrated,  by  the  following 
observations. — Moods  have  a  foundation  in  nature.  They 
show  what  is  certain  ;  what  is  possible ;  what  is  condi- 
tional ;  what  is  commanded.  They  express  also  other 
conceptions  and  volitions;  all  signifying  the  manner  of 
being,  doing,  or  suffering.  But  as  it  would  tend  to  ob- 
scure, rather  than  elucidate  the  subject,  if  the  moods  were 
particularly  enumerated,  grammarians  have  very  properly 
given  them  such  combinations  and  arrangements,  as  serve 
to  explain  the  nature  of  this  part  of  language^  and  to  ren- 
der the  knowledge  of  it  easily  attainable. 

*  We  think  it  has  been  proved  that  the  auxiliary  is  a  constitu- 
ent part  of  the  verb  to  which  it  relates  :  that  the  principal  and 
and  its  auxiliary  form  but  one  vei*b. 

-{•Conjunctions  have  an  influence  on  the  mood  of  the  follow- 
ing verb.  J)r:  Beattie. 
Conjunctions  have  sometimes  a  government  of  moods.  Br.  Lo-wtK 


ETYMOLOGY.  9B 

The  grammars  of  some  languages  contain  a  greater 
number  of  the  moods,  than  others,  and  exhibit  them  in 
different  forms.  The  Greek  and  Roman  tongues  denote 
them,  by  particular  variations  in  the  verb  itself.  This 
form,  however,  was  the  effect  of  ingenuity  and  improve- 
ment :  it  is  not  essential  to  the  nature  of  the  subject  The 
moods  may  be  as  effectually  designated  by  a  plurality  of 
words,  as  by  a  change  in  the  appearance  of  a  single  word  ; 
because  the  same  ideas  are  denoted,  and  the  same  ends  ac- 
complished, by  either  manner  of  expression. 

On  this  ground,  the  moods  of  the  English  verb,  as  well 
as  the  tenses,  are,  with  great  propriety,  ibrmed  partly  by 
the  principal  verb  itself,  and  partly  by  the  assistance  which 
that  verb  derives  from  other  words.  For  further  observa- 
tions, relative  to  the  views  and  sentiments  here  advanced, 
see  pages  69— 7 1 .     75—77.     98—101.     184—186. 

PASSIVE. 

Verbs  Passive  are  called  regular,  when  they 
form  their  perfect  participle  by  the  addition  of  d 
or  ed,  to  the  verb  :  as,  from  the  verb,  '  To 
love,'  is  formed  the  passive,  '  I  am  loved,  I  was 
loved,  I  shall  be  loved,'  &c. 

A  passive  verb  is  conjugated  by  adding  the 
perfect  participle  to  the  auxiliary  to  be,  through 
all  its  changes  of  number,  person,   mood,  and 
tense,  in  the  following  manner. 
TO  B£LOV£V. 

INDICATIVE    MOOD. 

Present  Tense, 
'ingular.  Plural. 

1 .  I  am  loved.  1 .  We  are  loved. 

2.  Thou  art  loved.  2.  Ye  or  you  are  loved. 
^^3.  He  fe  loved.         '  3.  They  are  loved. 
HL                              Jmfierfect  Tense. 

^^        Singular.  Plural. 

!.  I  was  loved.  I.  We  were  loved. 

2.  Thou  wast  loved.  2.  Yt  or  you  wfercloved. 

S.  He  was  loved,  3.  They  were  loved. 


96  ENGLISH    GRAMMARr 

Perfect  Tense. 
Singidar.  Plural 

1.  I  have  been  loved.  1.  We  have  been  loved. 

2.  Thou  hast  been  loved.       2.  Ye  or  you  have  been  loved. 

3.  He  hath  or  has  been  loved.3.  They  have  been  loved. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  had  been  loved.  1.  We  had  been  loved. 

2.  Thou  hadst  been  loved.     2    Ye  or  you  had  been  loved. 

3.  He  had  been  loved.  3.  They  had  been  loved. 

First  Future  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1 .  I  shall  or  will  be  loved.      1 .  We  shall  or  will  be  loved. 

2.  Thou    shalt    or  wilt  be  2.  Ye  or  you  shall  or  will  be 
loved.  loved. 

3.  He  shall  or  will  be  loved.  3.  They  shall  or  will  be  loved. 

Second  Future  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  have  been  loved.     1.  We  shall  have  been  loved. 

2.  Thou    wilt    have    been  2.  Ye  or  you  will  have  been 
loved.  loved. 

3.  He  will  have  been  loved.  3.  They  will  have  been  loved. 

IMPERATIVE    MOOD. 

Singular.  Plural, 

1.  Let  me  be  loved.  1.  Let  us  be  loved. 

2.  Be  thou  loved,  or  do  thou  2.  Be  ye  or  you  loved,  or  de 
be  loved.  ye  be  loved. 

3.  Let  him  be  loved.  3.  Let  them  be  loved. 

POTENTIAL    MOOB. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1 .  I  may  or  can  be  loved.       1 .  We  may  or  can  be  loved. 

2.  Thou  mayst  or  canst  be  2.  Ye  or  you  may  or  can  be 
loved.  loved. 

3.  He  may  or  can  be  loved.  3.  They  may  or  can  be  loved. 


ETYMOLOCY.  97 

Imperfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  might,  could,  would,  I.  We  might,  could,  would, 
or  should  be  loved.  or  should  be  loved. 

2.  Thou  mightst,  couldst,  2.  Ye  oj-you  might,  could, 
wouldst,  or  shouldst  be  would,  or  should  be  loved, 
loved. 

3.  He  might,  could,  would,  3.  They  might,  could,  would, 
or  should  be  loved.  or  should  be  loved. 

Perfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may  or  can  have  been  1.  We  may  or  can  have  been 
loved.  loved. 

2.  Thou  mayst  07' canst  have  2.  Ye  or  you  may  or  can  have 
been  loved.  been  loved. 

3.  He  may  07' can  have  been  3.  They  may  or  can  have 
loved.  been  loved. 

Plufierfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  might,  could,  would,  or  1.  Wc  might,  could,  would, 
should  have  been  loved.         or  should  have  been  loved. 

2.  Thou  mightst,  couldst,  2.  Ye  or  you  might,  could, 
wouldst,  or  shouldst  have  would,  or  should  have  been 
been  loved.  loved. 

3.  He  might,  could,  would,  3.  Theymight,  could,  would, 
or  should  have  been  loved.      or  should  have  been  loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
Si7igular.  Plural. 

\.  If  I  be  loved.  1.  If  we  be  loved. 

2.  If  thou  be  loved.  2.  If  ye  or  you  be  loved. 

3.  If  he  be  loved.  S.  If  they  be  loved. 

►  Imjierfect  Tense. 

.    Sing-ular.  Plural. 

\.  If  I  were  loved.  1.  If  we  were  loved. 

2.  If  thou  wert  loved.  2.  If  ye  or  you  were  loved. 

3.  If  he  were  loved.  3.  If  they  were  loved. 

The  remaining  tenses  of  this  mood  arc,  in  general,  sim- 
ilar to  the  correspoaident  tenses  of  the  indicative  mood.-— 

I 


98  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

See  pages  83,  93,  and  the  notes  under  the  nineteenth  rule 
of  syntax. 

INFINITIVE    MOOD. 

Present  Tense."  Perfect. 

To  be  loved.  To  have  been  loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present.  Bemg  loved. 

Perfect  or  Passive.         Loved. 

Compound  Perfect.  Having  been  loved. 

When  an  auxiliary  is  joined  to  the  participle  of  the 
principal  verb,  the  auxiliary  goes  through  all  the  varia- 
tions of  person  and  number,  and  the  participle  itself  con- 
tinues invariably  the  same.  When  there  are  two  or  more 
auxiliaries  joined  to  the  participle,  the  first  of  them  only 
is  varied  according  to  person  and  number.  The  auxiliary 
must  admits  of  no  variation. 

The  neuter  verb  is  conjugated  like  the  active  :  but  as  it 
partakes  somewhat  of  the  nature  of  the  passive,  it  admits 
in  many  instances,  of  the  passive  form,  retaining  still  the 
neuter  signification  ;  as,  '  I  am  arrived  ;*  '  I  was  gone  :* 
*  I  am  grown.'  The  auxiliary  verb  a/n,  wa^,  in  this  case, 
precisely  defines  the  time  of  the  action  or  event,  but  does 
not  change  the  nature  of  it  :  the  passive  form  still  ex- 
pressing, not  properly  a  passion,  but  only  a  state  or  condi- 
tion of  being. 

SECTION  9. 

Observations  on  Passive   Verbs. 

Some  writers  on  grammar  assert,  that  there  are  no 
Passive  Verbs  in  the  English  language,  because  we  have 
no  ver])s  of  this  kind  with  a  peculiar  termination,  all  of 
them  being  formed  by  the  different  tenses  of  the  auxili- 
ary to  be^  joined  to  the  passive  participle  of  the  verb. — 
This  is,  however,  to  mistake  the  true  nature  of  the  English 
verb  ;  and  to  regulate  it,  not  on  the  principles  of  our  own 
tongue,  but  on  those  of  foreign  languages.  The  conjuga- 
tion, or  the  variation,  of  the  English  Verb,  to  answer  all 
the  purposes  of  verbs,  is  accomplished  by  the  means  of 
auxiliaries  ;  and  if  it  be  ailedged  that  we  have  no  passive 
verbs,  because  we  cannot  exhibit  them  without   having 


ETYMOLOGV.n'  •     '  .      ''  ,         ',>'SD 

recoiu'se  to  helping  verbs,  it  may  ^y\'^\^  e,q\n\\iY\\ih  \yi,  ^ijl^  , 
that  we  have  no  /lerfect^  /ilujier/cctj'  ov  Jiihire  tense,  in  the  ' 
indicative  or  subjunctive  mood  ;  since  these,  as  well  as 
some  other  parts  of  the  verb  active,   are  formed  by  aux- 
iliaries. 

Even  the  Greek  and  Latin  passive  verbs  require  an 
auxiliary  to  conjugate  some  of  their  tenses  ;  namely,  the 
former,'  in  4he  preterit  of  the  optative  and  subjunctive 
moods  ;  and  the  latter,  in  the  perfect  and  pluperfect  of  the 
indicative,  the  perfect,  pluperfect,  and  future,  of  the  sub- 
junctive mood,  and  the  pejfect  of  the  infinitive.  The  de- 
ponent verbs,  in  Latin,  require  also  an  auxiliary  to  conju-- 
gate  several  of  their  tenses.  This  statement  abundantly 
proves  that  the  conju g-atlon  of  a  verb  in  the  learned  lan- 
guages does  not  consist  solely  in  varying  the  form  of  the 
original  verb.  It  proves  that  these  languages,  like  our 
own  language,  sometimes  conjugate  with  an  auxiliary,  and 
sometimes  without  it.  There  is,  indeed,  a  difference. 
What  the  learned  languages  require  to  be  done,  in  some 
instances,  the  peculiar  genius  of  our  own  tongue  obliges 
us  to  do,  in  active  verbs,  principally,  and  in  passive  ones, 
universally.  In  short,  the  variation  of  the  verb,  in  Greek 
and  Latin,  is  generally  accomplished  by  prefixes,  or  termi- 
nations, added  to  the  verb  itself ;  in  English,  by  the  addi- 
tion of  auxiliaries. 

The  English  tongue  is,  in  many  respects,  materially 
different  from  the  learned  languages.  It  is,  therefore, 
very  possible  to  be  mistaken  ourselves,  and  to  mislead  and 
perplex  others,  by  an  undistinguishing  attachment  to  the 
principles  and  arrangement  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  Gram- 
marians. Much  of  the  confusion  and  perplexity,  which 
we  meet  with  in  the  writings  of  some  English  Gramma- 
rians, on  the  subject  of  verbs,  moods,  and  conjugations, 
has  arisen  Irom  the  misapplication  of  names.  We  are  apt 
to  think,  that  the  old  names  must  always  be  attached  to 
the  identical  forms  and  things  to  which  they  were  ancient- 
ly attached.  But  if  we  rectify  this  mistake,  and  properly 
adjust  the  names  to  the  pecu?iar  forms  and  nature  of  the 
things  in  our  own  language,  we  shall  be  clear  and  consist- 
ent in  our  ideas  i  and  consequently,  better  able  to  rep  re - 

>ut  them  intelligibly  to  those  whom  we  wish  to  inform. 


^^eut  ti 

I 


lOQ  ,:english  grammar. 

;  ^Thf?.obsery^tio^s  which  we  have  made  under  this  heads, 
"khd'on*tlhe  subject  of  the  moods  in  another  place,  will  not 
apply  to  the  declension  and  cases  of  nouns,  so  as  to  require 
us  to  adopt  names  and  divisions  similar  to  those  of  the 
Greek  and  Latin  languages  :  for  we  should  then  have  more 
cases  than  there  are  prepositions  in  connexion  with  the 
article  and  noun  :  and  after  all,  it  would  be  a  useless,  as 
well  as  an  unwieldy  apparatus  ;  since  every  English  pre- 
position points  to,  and  governs,  but  one  case,  namely,  the 
objective  ;  which  is  also  true  with  respect  to  our  govern- 
ing verbs  and  participles.  But  the  conjugation  of  an 
English  verb  in  form,  through  all  its  moods  and  tenses,  by 
means  of  auxiliaries,  so  far  from  being  useless  or  intricate, 
is  a  beautiful  and  regular  display  of  it,  and  indispensably 
necessary  to  the  language. 

Some  grammarians  have  alleged,  that  on  the  same 
Sjround  that  the  voices,  moods,  and  tenses,  are  admitted 
into  the  English  tongue^  in  the  forms  for  which  we  have 
contended,  we  should  also  admit  the  dual  number,  the 
paulo  post  future  tense,  the  middle  voice,  and  all  the  moods 
and  tenses,  which  ai'e  to  be  found  in  Greek  and  Latin. 
But  this  objection,  though  urged  with  much  reliance  on 
its  weight,  is  not  well  founded.  If  the  arrangement  of  the 
moods,  tenses,  Sec.  which  we  have  adopted,  is  suited  to 
the  idiom  of  our  tongue  ;  and  the  principle,  on  which 
they  are  adopted,  is  extended  as  far  as  use  and  convenience 
require  ;  where  is  the  impropriety,  in  arresting  our  pro- 
gress, and  fixing  our  forms  at  the  point  of  utility  ?  A 
piinciple  may  be  warrantably  adopted,  and  carried  to  a 
precise  convenient  extent,  without  subjecting  its  support- 
ers to  the  charge  of  inconsistency,  for  not  pursuing  it  be- 
yond the  line  of  use  and  propriety. 

The  importance  of  giving  the  ingenious  student  clear 
and  just  ideas  of  the  nature  of  otir  verbs,  moods,  and  ten- 
ses, will  apologize  for  the  extent  of  the  Author's  remarks 
on  these  subjects,  both  here  and  elsewhere,  and  for  his 
solicitude  to  simplify  and  explain  them. — He  thinks  it  has 
been  proved,  that  the  idiom  of  our  tongue  demands  the  ar- 
rangement he  has  given  to  the  English  verb  j  and  that, 
though  the  learned  languages,  with  respect  to  voices, 
iTioods,  and  tenses,  are,  in  general,  differently  constructed 


ETYMOLOGY.  IQl 

from  the  English  tongue,  yet,  in  some  respoc.1:s,llijey  Sip^,  qq 
similar  to  it,  as  to  warrant  the  principle  which  he  hus  adopt- 
ed.    See  pages  69— r  1 .   75— -77.    92—95.     184—186. 

SECTION  10. 

Of  Irregular   Verbs. 

Irregular  Verbs  are  those  which  do  not 
form  their  imperfect  tense,  and  their  perfect  par- 
ticiple, by  the  addition  of  c/or  edto  the  verb  :  as, 

Present.  Imperfect.  Perfect  Part. 

I  begin,  I  began,  begun. 

I  know,  I  knew,  known. 

IRREGULAR    VERBS    ARE    OF    VARIOUS    SORTS. 

1 .  Such  as  have  the  present  and  imperfect  tenses,  and 
perfect  participle,  the  same  :  as. 

Present.  Imperfect.  Perfect  Part. 

Cost,  cost,  cost. 

Put,  put,  put. 

2.  Such  as  have  the  imperfect  tense,  and  perfect  parti- 
ciple, the  same  :  as, 

Present.  Imperfect.  Perfect  Part. 

Abide,  abode,  abode. 

Sell,  sold,  sold. 

3.  Such  as  have  the  imperfect  tense,  and  perfect  parti- 
ciple, different  :  as. 

Present.  Imperfect.  Perfect  Part. 

Arise,  arose,  arisen. 

Blow,  blew,  blown. 

Many  verbs  become  irregular  by  contraction  ;  as,  ^  feed, 
fed  ;  leave,  left :'  others  by  the  termination  en  ;  as,  *  fall, 
fell,  fallen  ;'  others  by  the  termination  ght  ;  as,  '  buy, 
bought ;  teach,  taught,'  8cc. 

The  following  list  of  the  irregular  verbs  will,  it  is  pre- 
eumed,  be  found  both  comprehensive  and  accurate. 
Present.  Imperfect.  Perf.  or  Pass.  Part. 

Abide,  abode,  abode. 

Am,  was,  been. 

Arise,  arose,  arisen. 

Awake,  awoke,  r.  awaked, 

Be^ar,  to  ^ring/orfhjb^re)  born. 

I  ^ 


10;2' 


X•^ 


JEKCIiISH    GRAMMAR, 


Vr.esenl.    ;  ■  ■.^-  : 

^Imperfej:!. 

Perf.  or  Pass.  Part: 

BcUi,  i&t'a/n/,  '  ■■ 

■bo're,  ■ 

borne. 

Beat, 

beat, 

beaten,  beat. 

Begin, 

began, 

begun. 

Bend, 

bent, 

bent. 

Bereave, 

bereft,  R. 

bereft,  r. 

Beseech, 

besought, 

besought. 

Bid, 

bid,  bade. 

bidden,  bid. 

Bind, 

bound. 

bound. 

Bite, 

bit. 

bitten,  bit. 

Bleed, 

bled. 

bled. 

Blow, 

blew. 

blown. 

Break, 

broke. 

broken. 

Breed, 

bred. 

bred. 

Bring, 

brought^ 

brought;. 

Build, 

built, 

built. 

Burst, 

burst. 

burst. 

Buy, 

bought. 

bought. 

Cast, 

.  cast, 

cast. 

Catch, 

caught,  R. 

caught,  R. 

Chide, 

chid. 

chidden,  chjd; 

Choose, 

chose. 

chosen. 

Cleave,  to  stick. 

'  V  REGULAR. 

or  adhere^ 

Cleave,  to  sfilit, 

clove,  or  cleft. 

cleft,  cloven. 

Cling, 

clung, 

clung, 

Clothe, 

clothed, 

clad, R. 

Come, 

came. 

come. 

Cost, 

cost. 

cost. 

Crow, 

crew,  R, 

crowed  i 

Creep, 

crept, 

crept. 

Cut, 

cut. 

^ut. 

Dare,  to  venture 

,     durst, 

dare^. 

Dare,  R.  to  challaige. 

Deal, 

dealt,  R. 

dealt,  R, 

Dig, 

dug,  R. 

dug,  R. 

Do, 

did, 

done. 

Draw, 

drew. 

drawn. 

Drive, 

drove. 

driven  .^ 

Drink, 

drank. 

drunk. 

Bwelf, 

dweU^  B. 

^Iwelt,  K. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

1( 

Present. 

Imperfect. 

Perf.  or  Pass.  Part. 

Eat, 

cat,  or  ate,. 

eaten. 

Fali; 

fell. 

fallen. 

Feed, 

fed. 

fed. 

Feel, 

felt. 

felt. 

Fight, 

fought, 

fought. 

Find, 

found, 

found. 

Flee, 

Hed, 

fled. 

Fling, 

flung. 

flung. 

Fly, 

flew. 

flown. 

Forget, 

forgot,. 

forgotten,  forgot. 

Forsake, 

forsook,, 

forsaken. 

Freeze, 

froze, 

frozen. 

Get, 

got, 

got.* 

Gild, 

gilt,  R. 

gilt,  R. 

Gird, 

girt,  R. 

girt,  R. 

Give^ 

gave. 

given. 

Go, 

went. 

gone. 

Grave, 

graved. 

graven,  r. 

Grind,^ 

ground. 

ground. 

Grow, 

grew. 

grown. 

Have, 

had. 

had. 

Hang, 

hung,  R, 

hung,  R. 

Hear, 

heard, 

heard. 

Hew^ 

hewed, 

hewn,  R. 

Hide, 

hid, 

hidden,  hid. 

Hit, 

hit, 

hit. 

Hold, 

held. 

held. 

Hurt, 

hurt. 

hurt.' 

Keep, 

kept. 

kept. 

Knit, 

knit,  R. 

knit,  R. 

Know, 

knew, 

known. 

Lade,. 

laded, 

laden. 

Lay, 

laid. 

laid. 

Lead, 

led. 

led. 

Leave, 

left. 

left. 

Lend, 

lent. 

lent. 

Let, 

let. 

let. 

Lie,  to  lie  downy 

lay. 

lain. 

103 


*  Gotten  is  neatly  obsolete, 
good  use. 


Its  compound /o^g-ow^rt  is  still  in 


104 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


Present. 

Imperfect. 

Pevf.  or  Pass.  Part 

Load, 

loaded. 

laden,  R. 

Lose, 

lost, 

lost. 

Make, 

made, 

made. 

Meet, 

met, 

met. 

Mow, 

mowed. 

mown,  R. 

Pay, 

paid. 

paid. 

Put, 

put. 

put. 

Read, 

read. 

read. 

Rend, 

rent, 

rent. 

Rid, 

rid, 

rid. 

Ride, 

rode, 

rode,  ridden.* 

Ring, 

rung,  rang, 

rung. 

Rise, 

rose. 

risen. 

Rive, 

rived. 

riven. 

Run, 

ran. 

run. 

Saw, 

sawed. 

sawn,  R. 

Say, 

said. 

said. 

See, 

saw. 

seen. 

Seek, 

sought, 

sought.. 

Sell, 

sold. 

sold. 

Send, 

sent. 

sent. 

Set, 

set. 

set. 

Shake, 

shook. 

shaken. 

Shape, 

shaped, 

shaped,  shapem. 

Shave, 

shaved. 

shaven,  r. 

Shear, 

sheared. 

shorn. 

Shed, 

shed, 

shed. 

Shine, 

shone,  r. 

shone,  r. 

Show, 

showed. 

shown. 

Shoe, 

shod. 

shod. 

Shoot, 

shot, 

shot. 

Shrink, 

shrunk. 

shrunk. 

Shred, 

shred, 

shred. 

Shut, 

shut. 

shut. 

Sing, 

sung,  sang, 

sung. 

Sink, 

sunk,  sank. 

sunk. 

Sit, 

sat, 

sat. 

Slay, 

slew, 

slain. 

Sleep, 

slept. 

slept. 

*  Hidckn  is  nearly  obsolete. 

il 

■■'mm 


ETYMOLOGY. 

10 

Present. 

Imperfect. 

Perf.  or  Pass.  Part 

Slide, 

slid. 

slidden. 

Sling, 

slung. 

slung. 

Slink, 

slunk. 

slunk. 

Slit, 

slit,  R. 

slit  or  slitte<J. 

Smite, 

smotO) 

smitten. 

Sow, 

sowed, 

sown,  R. 

Speak, 

spoke, 

spoken. 

Speed, 

sped, 

sped. 

Spend, 

spent. 

spent. 

Spill, 

spilt,  R. 

spilt,  R. 

Spin^ 

spun, 

spun. 

Spit, 

spit,  spat, 

spit,  spittcn.* 

Split, 

split. 

split. 

Spread, 

spread. 

spread. 

Spring, 

sprung,  sprang, 

sprung. 

Stand, 

stood. 

stood. 

Steal, 

stole. 

stolen. 

Stick, 

stuck. 

stuck. 

Sting, 

stung. 

Slung. 

Stink, 

stunk. 

stunk. 

Stride, 

strode  or  strid. 

stridden. 

Strike, 

struck. 

struck  or  stricken, 

String, 

strung. 

strung. 

Strive, 

strove, 

striven. 

Straw  or  strew. 

,        ,          y   K  strown,  strowec 
strowed  or  strewed,  j        strewed. 

Swear, 

swore. 

sworn. 

Sweat, 

swet,  R. 

swet,  R. 

Swell, 

swelled, 

swollen,  R. 

Swim, 

swum,  swam, 

swum. 

Swing, 

swung. 

swung. 

Take, 

took. 

taken. 

Teach, 

taught. 

taught. 

Tear, 

tore, 

torn. 

Tell, 

told, 

told. 

Think, 

thought, 

thought. 

Thrive, 

throve,  r. 

thriven. 

Throw, 

threw. 

thrown. 

Thrust, 

thrust. 

thrusW 

Spitten  is  nearly  (ibsolet©* 


106 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


Present 

Imperfect. 

Perf.  or  Pass.  Part.- 

Tread, 

trod. 

trodden. 

Wax, 

waxed, 

waxen,  r. 

Wear, 

wore. 

worn. 

Weave, 

wove, 

woven. 

Weep, 

wept. 

wept. 

Win, 

won. 

won. 

Wind, 

wound, 

wound. 

Work, 

wrought, 

wrought  or  worked. 

Wring, 

wrung. 

wrung. 

Write, 

wrote. 

written. 

In  the  preceding  list,  some  of  the  verbs  will  be  found  to 
be  conjugated  regularly,  as  well  as  irregularly  ;  and  those 
which  admit  of  the  regular  form  are  marked  with  an  r. 
There  is  a  preference  to  be  given  to  some  of  these,  which 
custom  and  judgment  must  determine.  Those  preterits 
and  participles  which  are  first  mentioned  in  the  list,  seem 
to  be  the  most  eligible.  The  Compiler  has  not  inserted 
such  verbs  as  are  irregular  only  in  familiar  v/riiiiig  or  dis- 
course, and  which  are  improperly  terminated  by  ?,  instead 
of  ed :  as,  learnt,  spelt,  spilt,  Sec.  These  should  be  avoid- 
ed in  every  sort  of  composition.  It  is,  however,  proper  to 
observe,  that  some  contractions  of  ed  into  t,  are  unexcep- 
tionable :  and  others,  the  only  established  forms  of  ex- 
pression :  as  crept,  dwelt,  gilt,  &c.  :  and  lost,  felt,  slept. 
Sec.  These  allowable  and  necessary  contractions  must 
therefore  be  carefully  distinguished  by  the  learner,  from 
those  that  are  exceptionable.  The  words  which  are  obso- 
lete have  also  been  omitted,  that  the  learner  might  not  be 
induced  to  mistake  them  for  words  in  present  use.  Such 
are,  wreathen,  drunken,  holpen,  molten,  gotten,  holden, 
bounden,  Sec.  ;  and  swang,  wrang,  slank,  sirawed,  gat, 
brake,  tare,  ware,  kc. 


SECTION  2. 

Of  Defectiv  e    Verbs  ;  and  of  the  different  ways  in   ivhich 
verbs  are  conjugated. 

Defective  verbs  are  those  which  are  used 
only  in  some  of  their  moods  and  tenses. 


ETYMOLOGY.  107 

The  princifial  of  them  are  these. 
Present,  Imperfect.  Pei'f-  or  Pass.  Part. 

Can,  could,  

May,  might, 

Shall,  should,  

Will,  would,  

Must,  must,  

Ought,  ought, 

■  quoth, 

That  the  verbs  must  and  ought  have  both  a  present  and 
past  signification,  appears  from  the  following  sentences  : 

*  I  must  own  that  I  am  to  blame  ;'  ^  He  must  have  been 
mistaken  ;*  '  Speaking   things   which   they   ought  not  ;' 

*  These  ought  ye  to  have  done.' 

In  most  languages  there  are  some  verbs  which  are  de- 
fective with  respect  to  persons.  These  are  denominated 
imfiersonal  verbs.  They  are  used  only  in  the  third  person, 
because  they  refer  to  a  subject  peculiarly  appropriated  to 
that  person  ;  as,  '  It  rains,  it  snows,  it  hails,  it  lightens,  it 
thunders.*  But  as  the  word  imfiersonal  implies  a  total  ab- 
sence of  persons,  it  is  improperly  applied  to  those  verbs 
which  have  a  person  :  and  lience  it  is  manliest,  that  there 
is  no  such  thing  in  English,  nor  indeed,  in  any  language, 
as  a  sort  of  verbs  really  impersonal. 

The  whole  number  of  verbs  in  the  English  language, 
regular  and  irregular,  simple  and  compounded,  taken  to- 
gether, is  about  4300.  The  num.ber  of  irregular  verbs, 
the  defective  included,  is  about  177.* 

Some  grammarians  have  thought  that  the  English  verbs, 
as  well  as  those  of  the  Greek,  Latin,  French,  and  other 
languages,  might  be  classed  into  several  conjugations  ; 
and  that  the  three  different  terminations  of  the  participle 
might  be  the  distinguishing  characteristics.  They  have 
accordingly  proposed  three  conjugations  ;  namely,  the 
first  to  consist  of  verbs,  the  participles  of  which  end  in  ed^ 
or  its  contraction  t  ;  the  second,  of  those  ending  in  ght  ; 
and  the  third  of  those  in  en.  But  as  the  verbs  of  the  first 
conjugation,  would  so  greatly  exceed  in  number  those  of 
both  the  others,  as  may  be  seen  by  the  preceding  account 
of  them  ;  and  as  those  of  the  third  conjugation  are  so  va- 

*  Tlie  wliole  mimber  of  "vvords,  in  Uie   English  languag-e,  is 
about  tiiirty-tive  tliousand. 


l-(58  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.' 

rious  in  their  form,  and  incapable  of  being  reduced  to  one 
plain  rule  ;  it  seems  better  in  practice,  as  Dr.  Lowth  just- 
ly observes,  to  consider  the  first  in  ed  as  the  only  regular 
form,  and  the  other  as  deviations  from  it ;  after  the  exam- 
ple of  the  Saxon  and  German  grammarians. 

Before  we  close  the  account  of  the  verbs,  it  may  affoi"d 
instruction  to  the  learners,  to  l>e  informed,  more  particu- 
larly than  they  have  been,  that  different  nations  have  made 
use  of  different  contrivances  for  marking  the  tenses  and 
moods  of  their  verbs.  The  Greeks  and  Latins  distinguish 
them,  as  well  as  the  cases  of  their  nouns,  adjectives,  and-par- 
ticiples,  by  varying  the  termination,  or  otherwise  changing 
the  form,  of  the  word  :  retaining,  however,  those  radical 
letters,  which  prove  the  inflection  to  be  of  the  same  kin- 
dred with  its  root.  The  modern  tongues,  particularly  the 
English,  abound  in  auxiliary  words,  which  vary  the  mean- 
ing of  the  noun,  or  the  verb,  without  requiring  any  consid- 
erable varieties  of  inflection.  Thus,  I  do  love,  I  did  love, 
I  have  loved,  I  had  loved,  I  shall  love,  have  the  same  im- 
port with  a7no,  amabam,  amavi,  amaveram,  amabo.  It  is 
obvious,  that  a  language,  like  the  Greek  and  Latin,  which 
can  thus  comprehend  in  one  word  the  meaning  of  two  or 
three  words,  must  have  some  advantages  over  those  which 
are  not  so  comprehensive.  Perhaps,  indeed,  it  may  not 
be  more  perspicuous  ;  but,  in  the  arrangement  of  words, 
und  consequently  in  harmony  and  energy,  as  well  as  in 
conciseness,  it  mtiy  be  much  more  elegant. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

OF  ADVERBS. 

An  Adverb  is  a  part  of  speech  joined  to  a  verb, 
an  adjective,  and  sometimes  to  another  adverb, 
to  express  some  quaUty  or  circumstance  respect- 
ing it :  as,  'He  reads  well;''  *  A  truly  good 
man  ;'  '  Ho  writes  very  correctly,'' 

Some   adverbs  are  compared,  thus  ;     '  Soon, 
sooner,  soonest  ;'    '  often,    ofteiier,  oftenest.'^ — 
Those  ending  in  ly,  are  compared  by  more  and: 
most :  as,  '  Wisely,  more  v.-iscly,  most  wisely 


ETYMOLOCY.  109 

Adverbs  seem  originally  to  have  been  contrived  to  ex- 
press compendiously  in  one  vv^ord,  what  must  otherwise 
have  required  two  or  more  :  as,  *  He  acted  wisely,*  for,  he 
V.ted  with  wisdom  ;  *  prudently,*  for,  with  prudence  ;  *  He 
did  it  here,*  for,  he  did  it  in  this  place  ;  *  exceedingly,*  for, 
to  a  great  degree  ;  '  often  and  seldom,'  for  many,  and  for 
few  times  ;  *  very,*  for,  in  an  eminent  degree,  &c. 

There  are  many  words  in  the  English  language  that  are 
sometimes  used  as  adjectives,  and  sometimes  as  adverbs  : 
as,  *  More  men  than  women  were  there  ;'  or,  *  I  am  more 
diligent  than  he.*  In  the  former  sentence  more  is  evident- 
ly an  adjective,  and  in  the  latter,  an  adverb.  There  are 
others  that  are  sometimes  used  as  substantives,  and  some- 
times as  adverbs  :  as,  *  To-day*s  lesson  is  longer  than 
yesterday's  ;*  here  to-day  and  yesterday^  are  substantives, 
because  they  are  words  that  make  sense  of  themselves,  and 
admit  besides  of  a  genitive  cas» :  but  in  the  phrase,  *  He 
came  home  yesterday,  and  sets  out  again  to-day,*  they  arc 
adverbs  of  time  j  because  they  answer  to  the  question  when. 
The  adverb  much  is  used  as  all  three  :  as,  '  Where  much 
is  given,  much  is  required  ;*  '  Much  money  has  been  ex- 
pended ;*  ^  It  is  much  better  to  go  than  to  stay.*  In  the 
first  of  these  sentences,  much  is  a  substantive  ;  in  the  se- 
cond, it  is  an  adjective  ;  and  in  the  third,  an  adverb.  In 
short,  nothing  but  the  sense  can  determine  what  they  are. 

Adverbs,  though  very  numerous,  may  be  reduced  to 
certain  classes,  the  chief  of  which  are  those  of  Number, 
Order,  Place,  Time,  Quantity,  Manner  or  Quality,  Doubt, 
Affirmation,  Negation,  Inten-ogation,  and  Comparison, 

1.  Oi  number  :  as,  *  Once,  twice,  thrice,*  &c. 

2.  Of  order  :  as,  '  First,  secondly,  thirdly,  fourthly, 
fifthly,  lastly,  finally,*  Sec. 

3.  Oi  place  :  as,  '  Here,  there,  where,  elsewhere,  any- 
where, somewhere,  nowhere,  herein,  whither,  hither, 
thither,  upward,  downward,  forward,  backward,  whence, 
hence,  thence,  whithersoever,*  Sw:. 

4.  Of  n7ne. 

Of  time  fire  sent  :  as,  *  Now,  to-day,*  Sec. 
Oi  time  past :  as,    *  Already,  before,  lately,  yesterday, 
Jienetofore,  hitherto,  long  since,  long  ago/  Sec. 

K 


110  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

O^  time  to  come :  as,  *  To-morrow,  not  yet,  hereafter, 
henceforth,  henceforward,  by  and  by,  instantly,  presently, 
immediately,  straightways,'  Sec 

OUime  indefinite  :  as,  *  Oft,  often,  oft-times,  often-times, 
sometimes,  soon,  seldom,  daily,  weekly,  monthly,  yearly, 
always,  when,  then,  ever,  never,  again,*  Sec. 

5.  Oi  cjiuintity :  as,  <  Much,  little,  sufficiently,  how 
much,  how  great,  enough,  abundantly,*  kc. 

6.  Of  manner  or  quality  :  as,  *  Wisely,  foolishly,  justly, 
unjustly,  quickly,  slowly,'  Sec.  Adverbs  of  quality  are  the 
most  numerous  kind  ;  and  they  are  generally  formed  by 
adding  the  termination  iy  to  dn  adjective  or  participle,  or 
changing  le  into  iy  :  as,  *  Bad,  badly  ;  cheerful,  cheerful- 
ly ;  able,  ably  ;  admirable,  admirably.* 

7.  OUloubt :  as,  '  Perhaps,  peradventure,  possibly,  per- 
'Chance.* 

8.  Of  affirmation  :  as,  '  Verily,  truly,  undoubtedly, 
doubtless,  certainly,  yea,  yes,  surely,  indeed,  really,*  Sec. 

9.  Oi  negation  :  as,  *  Nay,  no,  not,  by  no  means,  not  at 
all,  in  no  wise,*  Sec. 

10.  Of  interrogation  :  as,  <  How,  why,  wherefore, 
whether,*  Sec. 

1 1.  0( comparison  :  as,  <  More,  most,  better,  best,  worse, 
worst,  less,  least,  very,  almost,  little,  alike,*  Sec. 

Besides  the  adverbs  already  mentioned,  there  are  many 
-which  are  formed  by  a  combination  of  several  of  the  pre- 
positions with  the  adverbs  of  place  /lere,  there,  and  nvhere  : 
as,  *  Hereof,  thereof,  whereof;  hereto,  thereto,  whereto  ; 
hereby,  thereby,  wheret^ ;  herewith,  therewith,  where- 
with ;  herein,  therein,  wherein  ;  therefore  (i.  e.  there-for) 
wherefore  (i.  e.  where-for)  hereupon  or  hereon,  there- 
upon or  thereon,  whereupon  or  whereon,  See.  Except 
therefore.)  these  are  seldom  used. 

In  some  instances  the  preposition  suffers  no  change,  but 
l>ecomes  an  adverb  merely  by  its  application  :  as,  when 
we  say,  *  he  rides  about  ;*  *  he  was  near  falling  ;*  <  but  do 
not  after  lay  the  blame  on  me.* 

There  are  also  some  adverbs,  which  are  composed  of 
nouns  and  the  article  a :  as,  '  Aside,  athirst,  afoot,  ahead^ 
.asleep,  aboard,  ashore,  abed,  aground,  afloat,,*  &c. 


ETYMOLOGY.  Ill 

The  words  ivhen  and  ivkere^  and  all  others  of  the  same 
nature,  such  as  'whence^  whither,  whenever^  ivherever,  Sec. 
may  be  properly  called  adverbial  covjwictions  ;  because 
they  participate  the  nature  both  of  adverbs  and  conjunc- 
tions :  of  conjunctions,  as  they  conjoin  sentences;  of  ad- 
verbs, as  they  denote,  the  attributes  either  of  time,  or  of 
place. 

It  maybe  particularly  abservcd  with  respect  to  the  v/ord 
therefore,  that  it  is  an  adverb,  when,  without  joining  sen- 
tences, it  only  gives  the  sense  of,  for  that  reason.  When 
it  gives  that  sense,  and  also  connects,  it  is  a  conjunction  : 
as,  '  He  is  good,  therefore  he  is  happy.*  The  same  ob- 
servation may  be  extended  to  the  words  consequently,  ac- 
eordingly,  and  the  like.  Wken  these  are  subjoined  to  and, 
or  joined  to  if  since,  Sec.  they  are  adverbs,  the  connexion 
being  made  without  their  help  :  when  they  appear  single, 
and  unsupported  by  any  other  connective,  they  may  be 
called  conjunctions. 

The  inquisitive  scholar  may  naturally  ask,  what  neces- 
sity there  is  for  adverbs  of  time,  v/hen  verbs  are  provided 
with  tenaes,  to  show  that  circum. stance.  The  answer  is, 
though  tenses  may  be  sufficient  to  denote  the  greater  dis- 
tinctions of  time,  yet,  to  denote  them  all  by  the  tenses 
would  be  a  perplexity  v/ithout  end.  What  a  variety  of 
forms  must  be  given  to  the  verb,  to  denote  yesterday,  to- 
day, to-morronv,  formerly,  lately,  just  nonv,  no^v,  immediate- 
ly, firesently,  soon,  hereafter,  &c.  It  was  this  consideration 
that  madfi  the  adverbs  of  time  necessary,  over  and  above 
the  tenses. 


w 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

OF  PREPOSITIONS. 

Prepositions  serve  to  connect  words  with 
one  another,  and  show  the  rehition  between  them. 
They  are,  for  the  most  part,  put  before  nouns 
and  pronouns :  as,  '  He  went  Jrom  London  t® 
York;'  '  She  is  above  disguise  ;'  '  They  are  in* 
structed  bt/  him.' 


k 


il^                        ENGLISH    GRAMMAK. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the 

principal  prepositions  r 

Of              into             above 

at                off 

lo  -               within         below 

near             on  or  upon 

for              without       between 

up                among 

liV                over            beneath 

down           after 

■with            under          from 

before         about 

in                through      beyond 

behind        against 

Verbs  are  often  compounded  of  a  verb  and  a  preposi- 
tion ;  as,  to  uphold,  to  invest,  to  overlook  :  and  this  com- 
position sometimes  gives  a  new  sense  to  the  verb  ;  as,  to 
understand,  to  withdraw,  to  forgive.  But  in  English,  the 
preposition  is  more  frequently  placed  after  the  verb,  ancj 
separately  from  it,  like  an  adverb,  in  which  situation  it  is 
not  less  apt  to  affect  tiic  sense  of  it,  and  to  give  it  a  new 
meaning  ;  and  may  still  be  considered  as  belonging  totl.e 
verb,  and  as  a  part  of  it.  As,  to  cast,  is  to  throw  ;  but  to 
cast  ufi,  or  to  compute,  an  account,  is  quite  a  different 
thing  :  thus,  to  fall  en,  to  bear  out,  to  give  over,  &c.  So 
that  the  meaning  of  the  verb,  and  the  propriety  of  the 
piirase,  depend  on  the  preposition  subjoined. 

In  the  composition  of  many  words,  there  are  certain 
syllables  employed,  which  Grammarians  have  called  in- 
separable prepositions :  as,  be,  con,  7nis,  Sec.  in  bedeck, 
conjoin,  mistake  :  but  as  they  are  not  words  of  any  kind, 
they  cannot  properly  be  called  a  species  of  preposition. 

One  great  use  of  prepositions,  in  English,  is,  to  express 
those  relations,  which,  in  some  languages,  are  chiefly 
marked  by  cases,  or  the  different  endings  of  nouns.  See 
page  47.  The  necessity  and  use  of  them  will  appear 
from  the  following  examples.  If  we  say,  '  he  writes  a 
pen,*  '  they  ran  the  river,'  '  the  tower  fell  the  Greeks,* 
'  Lambeth  is  Westminster- Abbey,'  there  is  observable,  in 
each  of  these  expressions,  either  a  total  want  of  con- 
nexion, or  such  a  connexion  as  produces  falsehood  or  non- ' 
sense  :  and  it  is  evident,  that,  before  they  can  be  turned 
iiuo  sense,  the  vacancy  must  be  filled  up  by  some  connect- 
ing word  :  as  thus,  '  He  writes  nuith  a  pen  ;'  *  they  ran 
towards  the  river  ;'  '  the  tower  fell  u/ion  the  Greeks  ;' 
*  Lambeth  is  over  ag-aznst  Westminster- Abbey.'  We  see 
by  these  instances,  how  prepositions  may  be  necessary  lo 


i 


ETYMOLOGY.  113 

connect  those  words,  which  in  their  signification  are  not 
naturally  connected. 

Prepositions,  in  their  original  and  literal  acceptation, 
seem  to  have  denoted  relations  of  place  ;  but  they  are  now 
used  Jigurativdy  to  express  other  relations.  For  exam- 
ple, as  they  who  are  above  have  in  several  respects  the 
advantage  of  such  as  are  below,  prepositions  expressing 
high  and  low  places  are  used  for  superiority  and  inferiority 
in  general :  as,  '  He  is  above  disguise  ;'  '  we  serve  under 
a  good  master  ;'  '  he  rules  over  a  willing  people  ;'  *  we 
should  do  nothing  beneath  our  character.' 

The  importance  of  the  prepositions  will  be  further  per- 
ceived by  the  explanation  of  a  few  of  them. 

0/ denotes  possession  or  belonging,  an  effect  or  conse- 
quence,  and  other  relations  connected  with  these  :    as, 

*  The  house  of  my  friend  5*  that  is,  '  the  house  belonging 
to  my  friend  ;'  '  He  died  of  a  fever ;'  that  is,  '  in  con.se- 
quence  of  a  fever.* 

Z'o,  or  unto^  is  opposed  to  from  ;  as,  '  He  rode  from 
Salisbury  to  Winchester.' 

For  indicates  the  cause  or  motive  of  any  action  or  cir- 
cumstance, 8cc.  as,  '  He  loves  her/or  (that  is  on  account 
of)  her  amiable  qualities.* 

By  is  generally  used  with  reference  to  the  cause,  agent, 
ftieans.  &c,  as,  '  He  was  killed  by  a  fall  ;*  that  is,  '  a  fall 
was  the  cause  of  his  being  killed  ;*  *  This  house  was  built 
by  him  ;*  that  is,  *  he  was  the  builder  of  it.' 

With  denotes  the  act  of  accompanying,  uniting.  Sec.  as,. 

*  We  will  go  with  you  ;'  *  They  are  on  good  terms  with 
each  other;' — With  ■aXso  alludes  to  the  instrument  or" 
m.eans  ;  as,  '  He  was  clit  with  a  knife.' 

In  relates  to  time,  place,  the  state  or  manner  of  being 
or  acting.  Sec.  as,  '  He  was  born  m  (that  is,  during)  the 
year  1720  j'  'He  dwells  in  the  city;*  'She  lives  in  af- 
fluence.* 

Into  is  used  after  verbs  that  imply  motion  of  any  kind ; 
as,  '  He  retired  into  the  country  ;*  '  Copper  is  converted 
into  brass.* 

Within  relates  to  something  comprehended  in  any  place 
or  time  :  as,  '  They  are  within  the  house  ;*  '  He  began 
and  finished  his  work  within  the  limited  time.* 
K2 


114  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

The  signification  olnvithout  is  opposite  to  that  (ji  within  ; 
as,  '  She  stands  without  the  gate  :'  But  it  is  more  frequent- 
ly opposed  to  with  ;  as,  '  You  may  go  without  me.' 

Tlie  import  and  force  of  the  remaining  prei)ositions 
will  be  readily  understood,  without  a  particular  detail  of 
them.  We  shall,  therefore,  conclude  this  head  with  ob- 
serving, that  there  is  a  peculiar  propriety  in  distinguishing 
the  use  of  the  prepositions  by  and  with  ;  which  is  observ- 
able in  sentences  like  the  Ibllowing :  '  He  walks  with  a 
staff  by  moonlight ;'  '  Ele  was  taken  by  stratagem,  and 
killed  ivith  a  sword/  Put  the  one  preposition  for  the  other, 
and  say,  '  he  walks  by  a  staff  with  moonlight  ;*  *  he  was 
taken  with  stratagem,  and  killed  by  a  sword  ;'  and  it  will 
appear,  that  they  differ  in  signification  more  than  one,  at 
first  view,  would  be  apt  to  imagine. 

Some  of  the  prepositions  have  the  appearance  and  effect 
of  conjunctions  %  as,  *  After  their  prisons  were  thrown 
open,'  Sec.  '  Before  I  die  ;*  *  They  made  haste  to  be  pre- 
pared against  their  friends  arrived  :'  but  if  the  noun  time^ 
which  is  understood,  be  added,  they  will  lose  their  con- 
junctive form  :  as,  *  After  [the  time  v/hen]  their  pri- 
sons,* Sec. 

The  prepositions  aftcr^  before^  above^  beneath^  and  sev- 
eral others,  sometimes  appear  to  be  adverbs,  and  may  be 
so  considered:  as,  'They  had  their  reward  soon  after y 
*  He  died  not  long  before  ;'  '  He  dwells  above  ;*  but  if  the 
nouns  titvv  and  place  be  added,  they  will  lose  their  ad- 
verbial form  ;  as,  ^  He  died  not  long  before  that  time^'  Sec. 


CHAPTER  JX. 

OF    CONJUNCTIONS. 

A  C  o  N  J  u  N  c  T 1 0  N  is  a  part  of  speech  that  is 
chiefly  issed  to  connect  sentences  ;  so  as,  out  of 
two  or  more  sentences,  to  make  but  one.  It 
sometimes  connects  only  words. 

Conjunctions  are  principally  divided  into  two 
sorts,    the   c op ul a tiv£     and    the    disjunc> 

TIME. 


ILTYMOLOGY.  Il5 

The  Conjunction  Copulative  serves  to  connect 
or  to  continue  a  sentence,  by  expressing  an  addi- 
tion, a  supposition,  a  cause,  &c,  as,  *  He  and 
his  brother  reside  in  London  ;'  '  I  will  go  {/*he 
will  accompany  me;'  '  You  are  happy,  because 
you  are  good.' 

The  Conjunction  Disjunctive  serves,  not  only 
to  connect  and  continue  the  sentence,  but  also  to 
express  opposition  of  meaning  in  different  de- 
grees :  as,  '  Though  he  was  frequently  reproved, 
yet  he  did  not  reform  ;'  *  They  came  with  her, 
but  went  away  without  her.' 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  principal  Conjunctions. 

The  Cojiulati-ve.  And,  if,  that,  both,  then,  since,  for, 
because,  therefore,  wherefore. 

The  Disjunctive.  But,  or,  nor,  as,  than,  lest,  though, 
unless,  either,  neither,  yet,  notwithstanding. 

The  same  word  is  occasionally  used  both  as  a  conjunc- 
tion and  as  an  adverb  ;  and  sometimes  as  a  preposition. — 
*  I  rest  then  upon  this  argument  ;*  then  is  here  a  conjunc- 
tion :  In  the  following  phrase,  it  is  an  adverb  ;  *  He  arriv- 
ed then,  and  not  before.'  '•  I  submitted  ;  for  it  was  vain  to 
resist :'  in  this  sentence,  /or  is  a  conjunction  ;  in  the  next, 
it  is  a  preposition  :  '  He  contendedybr  victory  only.*  In 
the  first  of  the  following  sentences,  since  i^  a  conjunction  ; 
in  the  second,  it  is  a  preposition ;  and  in  the  third,  an  ad- 
verb ;  '  Since  we  must  part,  let  us  do  it  peaceably  :'  *  I 
have  not  seen  nim  since  that  time  :*  '  Our  friendship  com- 
menced long  since.* 

Relative  pronouns  as  well  as  conjunctions,  serve  to  con- 
nect sentences  :  as,  '  Blessed  is  the  man  ivho  feareth  the 
Lord,  and  keepeth  his  commandments.* 

A  relative  pronoun  possesses  the  force  both  of  a  pro- 
noun and  a  connective.  Nay,  the  union  by  relatives  is 
rather  closer,  than  that  by  mere  conjunctions.  The  latter 
may  form  two  or  more  sentences  into  one  ;  but,  by  the 
former,  several  sentences  may  incorporate  in  one  and  the 
same  clause  of  a  sentence.  Thus,  *  thou  seest  a  man,  and 
he  is  called  Peter,'  is  a  sentence  consisting  of  two  distinct: 


116  ENGLISH    CRATIMAR. 

clauses,  united  by  the  copulative  and :  but,  *  the  man  whoin 
thou  seest  is  called  Peter,'  is  a  sentence  of  one  clause, 
and  not  less  comprehensive  than  the  othefr. 

Conjunctions  very  often  unite  sentences,  when  they  ap- 
pear to  unite  only  words  ;  as  in  the  following  instances  : 
<  Duty  ««(-/ interest  forbid  vicious  indulgences  ;'  '  Wisdom 
or  folly  governs  us.'  Each  of  these  forms  of  expression 
contains  two  sentences,  namely  ;  '  Duty  forbids  vicious  in- 
dulgences ;  interest  forbids  vicious  uidulgences  ;'  '  Wis- 
dom governs  us,  or  folly  governs  us  ' 

Though  the  conjunction  is  commonly  used  to  connect 
sentences  together,  yet^on  some  occasions,  it  merely  con- 
nects words,  not  sentences  :  as,  '  The  king  a?2^  queen  are 
an  amiable  pair  ;'  where  the  affirmation  cannot  refer  to 
each  ;  it  being  absurd  to  say,  that  the  king  or  the  gueen 
only  is  an  amiable  pair.  So  in  the  instances,  '  two  and  two 
are  four  ;'  '  the  fifth  and  sixth  volumes  will  complete  the 
set  of  books.*  Prepositions  also,  as  before  observed,  con- 
nect words  ;  but  they  do  it  to  show  the  relation  wliich  the 
connected  words  have  to  each  other  :  conjunctions,  when 
they  unite  words  only,  are  designed  to  show  the  relations, 
which  those  words,  so  united,  have  to  other  parts  of  the 
sentence. 

As  there  are  many  conjunctions  and  connective  phrases 
appropriated  to  the  coupling  of  sentences,  that  are  never 
employed  in  joining  the  members  of  a  sentence  ;  so  there 
are  several  conjunctions  appropriated  to  the  latter  use, 
which  arc  never  employed  in  the  former  ;  and  some  that 
are  equally  adapted  to  both  those  purposes  :  as,  again, 
further^  beddcs,  Sec.  of  the  first  kind  ;  than,  lest,  unless, 
that,  so  that,  8^c.  of  the  second  ;  and  but,  and,fQr,  there- 
fore, &c.  of  the  last. 

We  shall  close  this  chapter  with  a  few  observations  on 
the  peculiar  use  and  advantage  of  the  conjunctions  ;  a  sub- 
ject which  will,  doubtless,  give  pleasure  to  the  ingenious 
student,  and  expand  his  views  of  the  importance  of  his 
grammatical  studies. 

'  Relatives  are  not  so  useful  in  language,  as  conjunc- 
tions. The  former  make  speech  more  concise  ;  the  lat- 
ter make  it  more  explicit  Relatives  comprehend  the 
meaning,  of  a  pronoun  and  conjunction  copulative:  con- 


ETYMOLOGY.  117 

junctions,  while  they  coufile  sentences,  may  also  express 
opposition,  inference,  and  many  other  relations  and  depen- 
dencies. 

Till  men  began  to  think  in  a  train,  and  to  carry  their 
reasonings  to  a  considerable  length,  it  is  not  probable  that 
they  would  make  much  use  of  conjunctions,  or  of  any 
other  connectives.  Ignorant  people,  and  children,  gener- 
ally speak  in  short  and  separate  sentences.  The  same 
thing  is  true  of  barbarous  nations  :  and  hence,  uncultivated 
languages  are  not  well  supplied  with  connecting  particles. 
The  Greeks  were  the  greatest  reasoners  that  ever  appear- 
ed in  the  world  ;  and  their  language,  accordingly,  abounds 
more  than  any  other  in  connectives. 

Conjunctions  are  not  equally  necessary  in  all  sorts  of 
writing.  In  poetry,  whei*e  great  conciseness  of  phrase  is 
required,  and  every  appearance  of  formality  avoided,  many 
of  them  would  have  ft  bad  effect.  In  passionate  language 
too,  it  may  be  proper  to  omit  them  :  because  it  is  the  na- 
ture of  violent  pftssion,  to  speak  rather  in  disjointed  sen- 
tences, than  in  the  way  of  inference  and  argument.  Books 
of  aphorisms,  like  the  Proverbs  of  Solomon,  have  few  con- 
nectives ;  because  they  instruct,  not  by  reasoning,  but  in 
detached  observations.  And  narrative  will  sometimes  ap- 
pear very  graceful,  when  the  circumstances  are  plainly 
told,  with  scarcely  any  other  conjunction  than  the  simple 
copulative  and  :  which  is  frequently  the  case  in  the  his- 
torical parts  of  Scripture.  When  narration  is  full  of  im- 
ages or  events,  the  omission  of  connectives  may,  by  crowd- 
ing the  principal  words  upon  one  another,  give  a  sort  of 
picture  of  hurry  and  tumult,  and  so  heighten  the  vivacity 
of  description.  But  when  facts  are  to  be  traced  down 
through  their  consequences,  or  upwards  to  their  causes  ; 
when  the  complicated  designs  of  mankind  are  to  be  laid 
open,  or  conjectures  offered  concerning  them  ;  when  the 
historian  argues  either  for  the  elucidation  of  truth,  or  in 
order  to  state  the  pleas  and  principles  of  contending  par- 
ties ;  there  Avill  be  occasion  for  every  species  of  connec- 
tive, as  much  as  in  philosophy  itself.  In  fact,  it  is  in  ar- 
gument, investigation,  and  science,  that  this  part  of  speech 
is  peculiarly  and  indispensably  necessary.' 


118  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR* 

CHAPTER  X. 

OF    INTERJECTIONS. 

Interjections  are  words  thrown  in  between 
the  parts  of  a  sentence,  to  express  the  passions 
or  emotions  of  the  speaker  :  as,  *  Oh  !  I  have 
alienated  my  friend  ;  alas  !  I  fear  for  life  ;'  *  O 
virtue  !  how  amiable  thou  art !' 

The  English  Interjections,  as  well  as  those  of  other  lan- 
guages, are  comprised  within  a  small  compass  They  are 
of  different  sorts,  according  to  the  different  passions  which 
they  serve  to  express.  Those  which  intimate  earnestness 
or  grief,  are,  O  /  oh  1  ah  I  alan  I  Such  as  are  expressive 
of  contempt,  are,  pish  I  tush  !  of  wonder,  heigh  !  really  .' 
stratige  !  of  calling,  he7n  !  ho  I  soho  !  of  aversion  or  dis- 
gust, foh  !  Jie  I  away  !  of  a  call  of  the  attention,  lo  !  be 
hold  !  hark  !  of  requesting  silence,  hush  !  hist  !  of  salu- 
tation, nvclcome  .'  hail  !  all  hail  !  Besides  these,  several 
others,  frequent  in  the  mouths  of  the  multitude,  might 
be  enumerated  ;  but,  in  a  grammar  of  a  cultivated  tongue, 
it  is  unnecessary  to  expatiate  on  such  expressions  of  pas- 
sion, as  are  scarcely  worthy  of  being  ranked  among  the 
branches  of  artificial  language. 

CHAPTER  XL 

OF    DERIVATION. 
SECTION    I. 

Of  the  various  %vays   in  ivhich  ivords  are  derived  ftom  one 
ayiother. 

Having  treated  of  the  different  sorts  of  words,  and  their 
various  modifications,  which  is  the  first  part  of  Etymolo- 
gy, it  is  now  proper  to  explain  the  methods  by  which  one 
word  is  derived  from  another. 

Words  are  derived  from  one  another  in  various  ways,  viz. 

1.  Substantives  arc  derived  from  verbs. 

2.  V'erbs  are  derived  from  substantives,  adjectives,  and 
sometimes  from  adverbs. 

3.  Adjectives  are  derived  from  substantives^ 


ETYMOtOGY.  11.9 

4.  Substantives  are  derived  from  adjectives. 

5.  Adverbs  are  derived  from  adjectives. 

•  1  Substantives  are  derived  from  verbs  :  as,  from  '  to 
love,*  comes  '  lover  ;*  from  *  to  visit,  visiter  ;*  from  *  to 
survive,  surviver ;'  &c. 

In  the  following  instances,  and  in  many  others,  it  is  dif- 
ficult to  determine  whether  the  verb  was  deduced  from 
the  noun,  or  the  noun  from  the  verb,  viz.  *  Love,  to  love  ; 
hate,  to  hate  ;  fear,  to  fear  ;  sleep,  to  sleep  ;  walk,  to  walk  ; 
ride,  to  ride  ;  act,  to  act  ;*  Sec. 

2.  Verbs  are  derived  from  substantives,  adjectives,  and 
sometimes  from  adverbs  :  as,  from  the  substantive  salt, 
comes  <  to  salt  ;*  from  the  adjective  ivarm^  <  to  warm  ;' 
and  from  the  adverb  forivard,  *  to  forward.*  Sometimes 
they  are  formed  by  lengthening  the  vowel,  or  softening 
the  consonant;  as,  from  ^grass,  to  graze  :'  sometimes  by 
adding  en;  especially  to  adjectives  :  as, from  '  length,  to 
lengthen;  short,  to  shorten.* 

3.  Adjectives  are  derived  from  substantives,  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner  :  Adjectives  denoting  plenty  are  derived 

I  from  substantives  by  adding  tj :  as,  from  *  Health,  healthy  ; 

I  wealth,  wealthy  ;  might,  mighty,'  8cc. 

i      Adjectives  denoting  the  matter  out  of  which  any  thing 

\  is  made,  are  derived  from  substantives  by  adding  en :  as, 

from  ^  Oak,  oaken  ;  wood,  wooden  ;  wool,  woolen,'  &c. 

Adjectives  denoting  abundance  are   derived  from  sub- 

i  atantives,  by  adding/w/ :  as,  from  '  Joy,  joyful  ;  sin,  sin- 

i  ful ;  fruit,  fruitful,*  &c. 

Adjectives  denoting  plenty,   but  with  some  kind  of  di- 

t  minution,  are  derived  from  substantives,  by  adding  some  : 
as,  from  <  Light,  lightsome  ;  trouble,  troublesome  ;  toil, 
toilsome,*  &c. 

Adjectives  denoting  want  are  derived  from  substantives, 

i  by  adding  less:  as,  from  ^  Wortli,  worthless  i'  from  *  care, 

I  careless  ;  joy,  joyless,*  &c. 

f  _  Adjectives  denoting  likeness  are  derived  from  substan- 
tives, by  adding  ly  :  as,  from  *  Man,  manly  ;  earth,  earth- 
ly ;  court,  courtly,*  Bcc 

Some  adjectives  are  derived  from  other  adjectives,  or 
from  substantives,  by  adding  hh  to  them  ;  which  termi- 
nzuion,  when  added  to  adjectives,  imports  diminution,  or 


120  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

lessening  the  quality  :  as,  *  White,  whitish  ;'  i.  e.  some- 
what white.  When  added  to  substantives,  it  signifies^ 
similitude  or  tendency  to  a  character  :  as,  *  Child,  child-' 
ish ;  thief,  thievish.' 

Some  adjectives  are  formed  from  substantives  or  verbs, 
by  adding  the  termination  able  ;  and  those  adjectives  sig- 
nify capacity  :  as,  *  Answer,  answerable  ;  to  change, 
changeable/ 

4.  Substantives  are  derived  from  adjectives,  sometimes 
by  adding  the  termination  ness :  as,  *  White,  whiteness  ; 
swift,  swiftness  :'  sometimes  by  adding  th  or  /,  and  mak- 
ing a  small  change  in  some  of  the  letters  :  as,  *  Long, 
length  ;  high,  height.' 

5.  Adverbs  of  quality  are  derived  from  adjectives,  by 
adding  /y,  or  changing  le  into  ly  ;  and  denote  the  same 
quality  as  the  adjectives  from  which  they  are  'derived  : 
as,  from  '  base,'  comes  ^  basely  ;'  from  *  slow,  slowly  ;* 
from  *  able,  ably.' 

There  are  so  many  other  ways  of  deriving  words  from 
one  another,  that  it  would  be  extremely  difficult,  and  near- 
ly impossible,  to  enumerate  them.  The  primitive  words 
of  any  language  are  very  few  ;  the  derivatives  form  much 
the  greater  number.  A  few  more  instances  only  can  be 
given  here. 

Some  substantives  are  derived  from  other  substantives, 
by  adding  the  terminations  hood  or  head^  shi/i^  ery,  ivicky 
ricky  dom,  ian,  ment^  and  age. 

Substantives  ending  in  hood  or  head^  are  such  as  signify 
character  or  qualities  ;  as,  '  Manhood,  knighthood,  false- 
hood,' 8cc. 

Substantives  ending  in  shifi^  are  those  that  signify  office, 
employment,  state,  or  condition  :  as,  '  Lordship,  steward- 
ship, partnership,'  Sec.  Some  substantives  in  sfiifi^  are  de- 
rived from  adjectives :  as,  '  Hard,  hardship,'  &c. 

Substantives  which  end  in  ery^  signify  action  or  habit  : 
as,  *  Slavery,  foolery,  prudery,'  &,c.  Some  substantives  of 
this  sort  come  from  adjectives  ;  as,  *  Brave,  braveiy,'  &c. 

Substantives  ending  in  ivick^  rick^  and  dovr^  denote  do- 
,  minion,  jurisdiction,  or  condition  ;  as,  <  Bailiwick,  bishop- 
rick,  kingdom,  dukedom,  freedom,*  &c. 


ETYMOLOGY.  121 

Substantives  which  end  in  ian^  are  those  that  signify  pro- 
fession ;  as,  *  Physician,  musician,'  &c.  Those  that  end 
in  ment  and  age^  come  generally  from  the  French,  and 
commonly  signify  the  act  or  habit ;  as,  '  Commandment, 
usage.* 

Some  substantives  ending  in  ard^  are  derived  from  verbs 
or  adjectives,  and  denote  character  or  habit  :  as,  *  Drunk, 
drunkard  ;  dote,  dotard/ 

Some  substantives  have  the  form  of  diminutives  ;  but 
these  are  not  many.  They  are  formed  by  adding  the  ter- 
minations, kin^  ling^  ing^  ock,  el,  and  the  like  :  as,  '  Lamb, 
lambkin  ;  goose,  gosling  ;  duck,  duckling  ;  hill,  hillock  ; 
cock,  cockerel,'  &c. 

That  part  of  derivation  which  consists  in  tracing  English 
words  to  the  Saxon,  Greek,  Latin,  French,  and  other  lan- 
guages, must  be  omitted,  as  the  English  scholar  is  not 
supposed  to  be  acc|uainted  with  these  languages.  The 
best  English  dictionaries  will,  however,  furnish  some  in- 
formation on  this  head,  to  those  who  are  desirous  of  obtain- 
ing it.  The  learned  Home  Tooke,  in  his  '  Diversions  of 
Purley,'  has  given  an  ingenious  account  of  the  derivation 
and  meaning  of  many  of  the  adverbs,  conjunctions,  and 
prepositions. 

It  is  highly  probable  that  the  system  of  this  acute  gram* 
marian,  is  founded  in  truth  ;  and  that  adverbs,  preposi- 
tions, and  conjunctions,  are  corruptions  or  abbreviations  of 
other  parts  of  speech.  But  as  many  of  them  are  derived 
from  obsolete  words  in  our  own  language,  or  from  words 
hi  kindred  languages,  the  radical  meaning  of  which  is, 
therefore,  either  obscure,  or  generally  unknown  ;  as  the 
system  of  this  very  able  etymologist  is  not  universally  ad- 
mitted ;  and  as,  by  long  prescription,  whatever  may  have 
been  their  origin,  the  words  in  question  appear  to  have 
acquired  a  title  to  the  rank  of  distinct  species  ;  it  seems 
proper  to  consider  them,  as  such,  in  an  elementary  trea- 
tise of  grammar  i  especially  as  this  plan  coincides  with 
that,  by  which  other  languages  must  be  taught  ;  and  will 
render  the  study  of  them  less  intricate.  It  is  of  small 
moment,  by  what  names  and  classification  we  distinguish 
these  words,  provided  their  meaning  and  use  are  well  un- 
derstood. A  pliilosophical  consideration  of  the  subject, 
L 


122  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

may,  with  great  propriety,  he  entered  upon  by  the  gram- 
matical student,  when  his  knowledge  and  judgment  be- 
come more  improved. 

SECTION  2. 

A  sketch  of  the  steflsy  by  which  the  English  Language  has 
risen  to  its  /iresent  state  of  rejinement. 
Before  we  conclude  the  subject  of  derivation,  it  will 
probably  be  gratifying  to  the  curious  scholar,  to  be  inform- 
ed of  some  particulars  respecting  the  origin  of  the  English 
language,  and  the  various  nations  to  which  it  is  indebted 
for  the  copiousness,  elegance,  and  refinement,  which  it 
has  now  attained. 

*  When  the  ancient  Britons  were  so  harassed  and  op- 
pressed by  the  invasions  of  their  northern  neighbours,  the 
Scots  and  Picts,  that  their  situation  was  truly  miserable, 
they  sent  an  embassy  (about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury) to  the  Saxons,  a  warlike  people  inhabiting  the  north 
of  Germany,  with  solicitations  for  speedy  relief.  The 
Saxons  accordingly  came  over  to  Britain,  and  were  suc- 
cessful in  repelling  the  incursions  of  the  Scots  and  Picts  ; 
but  seeing  the  weak  and  defenceless  state  of  the  Britons, 
they  resolved  to  take  advantage  of  it  ;  and  at  length  es- 
tablished themselves  in  the  greater  part  of  South-Britain, 
after  having  dispossessed  the  original  inhabitants. 

'  From  these  barbarians,  who  founded  several  petty 
kingdoms  in  this  island,  and  introduced  their  own  laws, 
language,  and  manners,  is  derived  the  groundwork  of  the 
English  language  :  which,  even  in  its  present  state  of  cul- 
tivation, and  notwithstanding  the  successive  augmentations 
and  improvements,  which  it  has  received  through  various 
channels,  displays  very  conspicuous  traces  of  its  Saxou 
original 

*  The  Saxons  did  not  long  remain  in  quiet  possession  of 
the  kingdom  ;  for  before  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century, 
the  Danes,  a  hardy  and  adventurous  nation,  who  had  long 
infested  the  iiorthern  seas  with  their  piracies,  began  to 
ravage  the  English  coasts.  Their  first  attempts  were,  in 
general,  attended  with  such  success,  that  they  were  en- 
couraged to  a  renewal  of  their  ravages ;  till,  at  length,  in 


ETYMOLOGY.  123 

the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century,  they  made  thein- 
selves  masters  of  the  greater  part  of  England.^ 

♦  Though  the  period,  during  which  these  invaders  oc- 
cupied the  English  throne,  was  very  short,  not  greatly  ex- 
ceeding half  a  century,  it  is  highly  probable  that  some 
change"  was  introduced  by  them  into  the  language  spoken 
by  those  whom  they  had  subdued  :  but  this  change  cannot 
be  supposed  to  have  been  very  considerable,  as  the  Danish 
and  Saxon  languages  arose  from  one  common  source,  the 
Gothic  being  the  parent  of  both. 

'  *  The  next  conquerors  of  this  kingdom,  after  the  Danes, 
were  the  Normans,  who,  in  the  year  1066,  introduced  theii^ 
leader  William  to  the  possession  of  the  English  thronqr. 
This  prince,  soon  after  his  accessiow,  endeavoured  to  bring 
his  own  language  (the  Norman-French)  into  use  among 
his  new  subjects ;  but  his  efforts  were  not  very  successful, 
as  the  Saxons  entertained  a  great  antipathy  to  these  haugh- 
ty foreigners.  In  process  of  time,  however,  many  Nor- 
man words  and  phrases  v.'ere  incorporated  into  the  Saxofi 
language  :  but  its  general  form  and  construction  still  re- 
mained the  same. 

*  From  the  Conquest  to  the  Reformation,  the  language 
continued    to   receive   occasional   accessions  of    foreign 

ords,  till  it  acquired  such  a  degree  of  copiousness  and 
rength,  as  to  render  it  susceptible  of  that  polish,  which 
It  has  received  from  writers  of  taste  and  genius,  in  the  lasfe 
and  present  centuries.  During  this  period,  the  learned 
have  enriched  it  with  many  significant  expressions,  drawn 
from  the  treasures  of  Greek  and  Roman  literature  ;  the 
ingenious  and  the  fashionable  have  imported  occasional 
supplies  of  French,  Spanish,  Italian  and  German  words, 
gleaned  during  their  foreign  excursions  ;  and  the  con- 
nexions which  we  maintain,  through  the  medium  of  gov- 
ernment and  commerce,  with  many  remote  nations,  have 
made  some  additions  to  our  native  vocabulary. 

*  In  this  manner  did  the  ancient  language  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  proceed,  through  the  various  stages  of  innovation., 
and  the  several  gradations  of  refinement,  to  the  formation 

f  the  present  English  tongue.* 


124  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

PART  III. 

SYNTAX. 

The  third  part  of  grammar  is  syntax,  whicli 
treats  of  the  agreement  and  construction  of  words 
in  a  sentence. 

A  sentence  is  an  assemblage  of  words,  form- 
ing a  complete  sense. 

Sentences  are  of  two  kinds,  simple  and  com- 
pound. 

A  simple  sentence  has  in  it  but  one  subject, 
and  one  finite  '^  verb  :  as,  '  Life  is  short.' 

A  compound  sentence  contains  two  or  more 
simple  sentences,  joined  together  by  one  or  more 
connective  words  :  as,  *  Life  is  short,  and  art  is 
long.' 

As  sentences  themselves  are  divided  into  simple  and 
compomid,  so  the  members  of  sentences  may  be  divided 
likewise  into  simple  and  compound  members  :  for  whole 
sentences,  whether  simple  or  compounded,  may  become 
members  of  other  sentences,  by  means  of  some  addition- 
al connexion  ;  as  in  the  followiog  example :  *  The  ox 
knoweth  his  owner,  and  the  ass  his  master's  crib  ;  but 
Israel  doth  not  know,  my  people  do  not  consider/  This 
sentence  consists  of  two  compounded  members,  each  of 
which  is  subdivided  into  two  simple  members,  which  are 
properly  called  clauses. 

There  are  three  sorts  of  simple  sentences  ;  the  ejc-fiH- 
ralivcy  or  explaining  ;  the  interrogative^  or  asking  ;  the 
imfierative,  or  commanding. 

An  explicative  sentence  is  when  a  thing  is  said  to  be  or 
not  to  be,  to  do  or  not  to  do,  to  suffer  or  not  to  suffer,  in  a 
direct  manner :  as,  *  I  am  ;  thou  writest ;  Thomas  is 
loved.*     If  the  sentence  be  negative,  the   adverb  not  is 

*  Finite  verbs  are  those  to  which  number  and  person  apper- 
tain. Verbs  in  Uie  i7ifinitive  mood  have  no  respect  to  nunibei- 
or  person. 


SYNTAX.  125 

placed  after  the  auxiliary,  or  after  the  verb  itself  when  it 
has  no  auxiliary  :  as,  '  I  did  not  touch  him  ;*  or,  '  I 
touched  him  not.' 

In  an  interrogative  sentence,  or  when  a  question  i^ 
asked,  the  nominative  case  follows  the  principal  verb  or 
the  auxiliary  :  as,  *  Was  it  he  ?'  *  Did  Alexander  conquer 
the  Persians  .'* 

In  an  imperative  sentence,  when  a  thing  is  commanded 
to  be,  to  do,  to  suffer,  or  not,  the  nominative  case  likewise 
follows  the  verb  or  the  auxiliary  :  as,  '  Go,  thou  traitor  1' 
^  Do  thou  go  :*  *  Haste  ye  away  :*  unless  the  verb  let  be 
used  :  as,  *  Let  us  be  gone.* 

A  phrase  is  two  or  more  words  rightly  put  to- 
gether, making  sometimes  part  of  a  sentence,  and 
sometimes  a  whole  sentence. 

The  principal  parts  of  a  simple  sentence  arc, 
the  subject,  the  attribute,  and  the  object. 

The  subject  is  the  thing  chiefly  spoken  of;  the 
attribute  is  the  thing  or  action  aifirmed  or  denied 
of  it ;  and  the  object  is  the  thing  affected  by 
such  action. 

The  nominative  denotes  the  subject,  and  usual- 
ly goes  before  the  verb  or  attribute  ;  and  the 
word  or  phrase,  denoting  the  object,  follows  the 
verb;  as,  *  A  wise  man  governs  his  passions.' 
Here,  a  wise  man  is  the  subject  ;  governs,  the 
attribute,  or  thing  aflirmed  ;  and  his  passions,  the 
object. 

Syntax  principally  consists  of  two  parts,  CoU" 
rorcfand  Government, 

Concord  is  the  agreement  which  one  word  has 
with  another,  in  gender,  number,  case,  or  person. 

Government  i&  that  power  which  one  part  of 
speech  has  over  another,  in  directing  its  mood, 
t^itse,  or  caser 


1^26  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  (Rulc  L 

To  produce  the  agreement  and  right  disposi- 
tion of  words  in  a  sentence,  the  following  rules 
and  observations  should  be  carefully  studied. 

RULE    I. 

A  verb  must  agree  with  its  nominative  case, 
in  number  and  person  :  as,  *  I  learn  ;'  *  Thou 
art  improved  ;'  *  The  birds  sing.' 

The  following  are  a  few  examples  of  the  violation  of 
this  rule.  *  What  signifies  good  opinions,  when  our  prac- 
tice is  bad  ?'  '  What  signify,'  '  The  Normans,  under 
which  general  term  is  comprehended  the  Danes,  Norwe- 
gians, and  Swedes,  were  accustomed  to  slaughter  and  ra- 
pine ;'  *  a}'c  comprehended.*  '  If  thou  would  be  easy 
and  happy  in  thy  family,  be  careful  to  observe  discipline  ;' 
*  if  thou  nvoiildnt'  '  Gold,  whence  came  thou  ?  whither 
goes  thou  ?  when  will  thou  come  again  V  '  earnest^  goest, 
ivlll*  *  But  thou  false  promiser,  never  shall  obtain  thy 
purpose  :'  it  ought  to  be  *  shalt.'  '  And  wheresoe'er  thou 
turns  thy  view  ;*  '  twmest.*  *  There's  two  or  three  of  us 
liave  seen  tlie  work  :'  '  there  are.*  ^  Great  pains  has  been 
taken  ;*  '  have  been/  *  I  have  considered  what  have  been 
Sciid  on  both  sides  in  this  controversy  ;'  '  what  has  been 
suid.'  '  One  would  think  there  was  more  sophists  than 
one  ;'  '  there  were  more.'  '  The  number  of  the  names 
together  were  about  one  hundred  and  twenty  ;'  *  was 
about.* 

*1.  The  infinitive  mood,  or  part  of  a  sentence,  is  some- 
times put  as  the  nominative  case  to  the  verb  :  as,  '  To  see 
rbe  sun  is  pleasant  ;'  '  To  be  good  is  to  be  happy  ;'  '  A 
desire  to  excel  others  in  learning  and  virtue  is  commen- 
dable ;'  '  That  warm  climates  should  accelerate  the  growth 
«f  the  human  body,  and  shorten  its  duration,  is  very  rea- 
sonable to  believe  ;'  '  To  be  temperate  in  eating  and 
drinking,  to  use  exercise  in  the  open  air,  and  to  preserve 
the  mind  free  from  tumultuous  emotions,  are  the  best 
preservatives  of  health.* 

*  The  chief  practical  notes  under  each  Rule,  are  regularly 
numbered,  in  order  to  make  them  correspond  to  the  exiunules 
in  the  volume  of  Exer^.  ■  ■;  • '' 


ri 


Rule  IT)  SYNTAX.  127 

2.  Every  verb,  except  in  the  infinitive  mood,  or  the  par- 
ticiple, ought  to  have  a  nominative  case,  either  expressed 
or  implied :  as,  *  Awake  ;  arise  ;*  that  is,  '  Awake  ye  ; 
arise  ye.* 

We  shall  here  add  some  examples  of  inaccuracy,  in  the 
use  of  the  verb  without  its  nominative  case.  '  As  it  hath 
pleased  him  of  his  goodness  to  give  you  safe  deliverance, 
and  hath  preserved  you  in  the  great  danger,*  &:c.  The 
verb  '  haihtireser-ved^  has  here  no  nominative  case,  for  it 
cannot  be  properly  supplied  by  the  preceding  word,  '  him* 
which  is  in  the  objective  case.  It  ought  to  be,  '  and  as 
he  hath  preserved  you  ;*  or  rather,  '  and  to  preserve  you.' 
*  If  the  calm  in  which  he  was  born,  and  lasted  so  long, 
had  continued  ;*  'and  ivhkh  lasted,*  Sec.  '  These  we 
have  extracted  from  an  historian  of  undoubted  credit,  and 
are  tlie  same  that  were  practised,*  &c  ;  and  they  are  the 
same.*  '■  A  man  whose  inclinations  led  him  to  be  corrupt, 
and  had  great  abilities  to  manage  the  business  ;*  'and  ivho 
had,'  &c.  'A  cloud  gathering  in  the  north  ;  which  we 
have  helped  to  raise,  and  may  quickly  break  in  a  storm 
upon  our  heads  ;'  '  and  ivhich  may  quickly.' 

3.  Every  nominative  case,  except  the  case  absolute,  and 
when   an  address  is  made  to  a  person,  should  belong  to 

ome  verb,  either  expressed  or  implied  :  as,  '  Who  wrote 

is  book  V  '  James  ;'  that  is,  '  James  wrote  it.'     '  To 

om  thus  Adam,*  that  is,  '  spoke' 

One  or  two  instances  of  the  improper  use  of  the  nomi- 
native case,  without  any  verb,  expressed  or  implied,  to 
cUiswer  it,  may  be  sufficient  to  illustrate  the  usefulness  of 
the  preceding  observation. 

'  Which  rule^  if  it  had  been  observed,  a  neighbouring 
prince  would  have  wanted  a  great  deal  of  that  incefise 
which  hath  been  offered  up  to  him*  The  pronoun  it  is 
here  the  nominative  case  to  the  verb  '  observed  ;'  and 
vMch  rule^  is  left  by  itself,  a  nominative  case  without  any 
verb  follov/ing  it.  This  form  of  expression,  though  im- 
proper, is  very  common.  It  ought  to  he,  '  If  this  rule 
had  been  observed,*  &cc.  '  Man^  though  he  has  great  va- 
riety of  thoughts,  and  such  from  which  others  as"  well  as 
himself  miglit  receive  profit  and  delight,  yet  they  are  all 
^vuhin  his  own  breai^t.*;   In  this  sentence,  the  nominative 


128  ENGLISlf    GRAMMAR.  (Rule  1. 

man  stands  alone  and  unconnected  with  any  verb,  either 
expressed  or  implied.  It  should  be,  ^  Though  man  has 
great  variety,'  Sec. 

4.  When  a  verb  comes  between  two  nouns,  cither  of 
which  maybe  understood  as  the  subject  of  the  affirmation, 
it  may  agree  with  either  of  them  ;  but  some  regard  must 
be  had  to  that  which  is  more  naturally  the  subject  of  it,  as 
also  to  that  which  stands  next  to  the  verb  :  as,  '  His  meat 
was  locusts  and  wild  honey  ;'  *  A  great  cause  of  the  low 
state  of  industiy  nvere  the  restraints  put  upon  it  ;*  *  The 
wages  of  sin  /*  death.' 

5.  When  the  nominative  case  has  no  personal  tense  of 
a  verb,  but  is  put  before  a  participle,  independently  on  the 
vest  of  the  sentence,  it  is  called  the  case  absolute :  as, 
*  Shame  being  lost,  all  virtue  is  lost ;'  ^  That  having  been 
discussed  long  ago,  there  is  no  occasion  to  resume  it.* 

As  in-the  use  of  the  case  absolute,*the  case  is,  in  English, 
always  the  nominative,  the  following  example  is  erroneous,, 
in  making  it  the  objective.  ^  Solomon  was  of  this  mind  ; 
and  I  have  no  doubt  he  made  as  wise  and  true  proverbs, 
as  any  body  has  done  since  ;  him  only  excepted,  who  was 
a  much  greater  and  wiser  man  than  Solomon.*  It  should 
be,  '  he  only  excepted.' 


The  nominative  case  is  commonly  placed  before  the 
verb  ;  but  sometimes  it  is  put  after  the  verb,  if  it  is  a  sim- 
ple tense  ;  and  between  the  auxiliary,  and  the  verb  or  par- 
ticiple, if  a  compound  tense  :  as, 

1st.  When  a  question  is  asked,  a  command  given,  or  a 
wish  expressed  :  as, '  Confidest  thou  in  me  ?'  '  Read  thou  ;* 
'-  Miyst  thou  be  happy  !'  '  Long  live  the  king  1' 

2d.  When  a  supposition  is  made  without  the  conjunc- 
tion if:  as,  '  Were  it  not  for  this ;'  '  Had  I  been  there.* 

3d.  When  a  verb  neuter  is  used  :  as,  '  On  a  sudden  ap- 
peared the  king.' 

4th.  When  the  verb  is  preceded  by  the  adverbs,  here^ 
thereof  then^  thence^  hence^  thus^  &c.  as,  '  Here  am  I  j* 
*  There  was  he  slain  ;'  '  Then  cometh  the  end  ;'  '  Thence 
ariseth  his  grief;*  'Hence  proceed^  his  anger j'  *  Thus 
was  the  affair  settled^' 


Rule  2.)  SYNTAX.  129 

5th.  When  a  sentence  depends  on  neither  or  novy  so  as 
to  be  coupled  with  another  sentence :  as,  <  Ye  shall  not 
cat  of  it,  neither  shall  ye  touch  it,  lest  ye  die.' 

The  phrases,  as  follows^  as  apfiears^  form  what  are  call- 
ed impersonal  verbs :  and  should,  therefore,  be  confined 
to  the  singular  number :  as,  '  The  arguments  advanced 
were  nearly  as  follows  ;'  '  The  positions  were  as  appears 
incontrovertible  :*  that  is,  *  as  it  follows,'  '  as  it  appears.* 
If  we  give  the  sentence  a  different  turn,  and  instead  of  a.?, 
say  such  asy  the  verb  is  no  longer  termed  impersonal ;  but 
properly  agrees  with  its  nominative,  in  the  plural  number  : 
as,  '  The  arguments  advanced  were  nearly  such  asfolloiv}' 

*  The  positions  were  such  as  appear  incontrovertible.'* 

They  who  are  inclined  to  favour  the  opinion  of  Home 
Tooke,  '  That  asy  however  and  whenever  used  in  English, 
means  the  same  as  :V,  or  that,  or  which  ;'  and  who  are  not 
satisfied  whether  the  verbs,  in  the  sentences  first  mention- 
ed, should  be  in  the  singular  or  the  plural  number,  may 
vary  the  form  of  expression.  Thus,  the  sense  of  the  pre- 
ceding sentences,  may  be  conveyed  in  the  following  terms. 

*  The  arguments  advanced  were  nearly  of  the  following 
nature  ;'  '  The  following  are  nearly  the  arguments  which 
were  advanced  :'  *  The  arguments  advanced  were  nearly 
those  which  follow  :'  '  It  appears  that  the  positions  were 
incontrovertible  ;'  <  That  the  positions  were  incontroverti- 
ble is  apparent  ;'  *  The  positions  were  apparently  incon- 
trovertible.' 

RULE    II. 

Two  or  more  nouns,  &c.  in  the  singular  num- 
ber, joined  together   by  one  or  more  copulative 

*  In  our  ideas  on  this  subject,  we  are  supported  by  general 
usage,  and  by  the  authority  of  an  eminent  critic  on  language  and 
composition.  'When  a  verb  is  used  impersonally,'  says  Dr. 
Campbell,  in  his  Philosophy  of  Rhetoric,  'it  ought  undoubtedly 
to  be  in  the  singular  number,  whether  the  neuter  pronoun  be 
expressed  or  understood.  For  this  reason,  analogy  and  usage 
favour  this  mode  of  expression  :  *  The  conditions  of  the  agree- 
ment were  as  folhws  .•*  and  not  as  folloto.  A  few  late  writers 
have  inconsiderately  adopted  this  last  form,  through  a  mistake 
of  the  construction.  For  the  same  reason,  we  ought  to  say,  *  I 
shall  consider  his  censures  so  far  only  as  coitcerm  my  friend's 
conduct ;*  and  not  '  so  fjir  a«  coJicern* 


330  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  (Rulc  2. 

conjunctions,  expressed  or  understood,  must 
have  verbs,  nouns,  and  pronouns,  agreeing  with 
them  in  the  pkiral  number  :  as,  '  Socrates  and 
Plato  were  wise  ;  thet/  were  the  most  eminent 
philosophers  of  Greece  ; '  '  The  sun  that  rolls  over 
our  heads,  the  food  that  we  receive,  the  rest  that 
we  enjoy,  daily  admonish  us  of  a  superiour  and 
superintending  Power.* 

This  rule  is  often  Aiolated  ;  some  instances  of  which 
are  annexed.  '  And  so  was  also  James  and  John  the  sons 
of  Zebedee,  who  were  partners  with  Simon  ;'  *  and  so 
were  also.'  *  All  joy,  tranquillity,  and  peace,  even  for 
ever  and  ever,  doth  dwell  ;*  '  chvcilfov  ever.*  '  By  whose 
power  all  good  and  evil  is  distributed  ;*  *  ay-e  distributed;' 
*  Their  love,  and  their  hatred,  and  their  envy,  is  now  per- 
ished ;'  <  are  perished.*  The  thoughtless  and  intemper- 
ate enjoyment  of  pleasure,  the  criminal  abuse  of  it,  and 
the  forgetfulness  of  our  being  accountable  creatures,  ob- 
literates every  serious  thought  of  the  proper  business  of 
life,  and  effaces  the  sense  of  religion  and  of  God  ;*  It 
ought  to  be,  *  obliterate*  and  *  e£ace.* 

i.  Wiien  the  nouns  are  nearly  related,  or  scarcely  dis- 
tinguishable in  sense,  and  sometimes  even  when  they  are 
very  different,  some  authors  have  thought  it  allowable  to 
put  the  verbs,  nouns,  and  pronouns,  in  the  singular  num- 
ber :  as,  *  Tranquillity  and  peace  dwells  there  ;*  '  Igno- 
rance and  negligence  has  produced  the  effect ;'  ^  The  dis- 
comfiture and  slaughter  was  very  great.'  But  it  is  evi- 
dently contrary  to  the  first  principles  of  grammar,  to  con- 
sider two  distinct  ideas  as  one,  however  nice  may  be  their 
shades  of  difference  ;  and  if  there  be  no  difference,  one  of 
them  must  be  superfluous,  and  ought  to  be  rejected. 

To  support  the  above  construction,  it  is  said  that  the 
verb  may  be  understood  as  applied  to  each  of  the  preced- 
ing terms  ;  as  in  the  following  example.  *  Sand,  and  salt, 
and  a  mass  of  iron,  is  easier  to  bear  than  a  man  without 
understanding.'  But  besides  the  confusion,  and  the  latii 
tude  of  application,  which  such  a  construction  would  in^ 

*  See  ICei/  to  the  jEnsrIish  E^^crcises,    Mnth  edition,  p.  23. 


Rule  2.)  SYNTAX.  131 

troduce,  it  appears  to  be  more  proper  and  analogical,  in 
cases  where  the  verb  is  intended  to  be  applied  to  any  one 
of  the  terms,  to  make  use  of  the  disjunctive  conjunction, 
which  grammatically  refers  the  verb  to  one  or  other  of  the 
preceding  terms  in  a  separate  view.  To  preserve  the 
distinctive  uses  of  the  copulative  and  disjunctive  conjunc* 
tions,  would  render  the  rules  precise,  consistent,  and  in- 
telligible. Dr.  Blair  very  justly  observes,  that  '  two  or 
more  substantives,  joined  by  a  copulative,  must  alnvays  re- 
quire the  verb  or  pronoun  to  which  they  refer,  to  be  plac- 
ed in  the  plural  number.' 

2.  In  many  complex  sentences,  it  is  difficult  for  learn- 
ers to  determine,  whether  one  or  more  of  the  clauses  are 
to  be  considered  as  the  nominative  case  ;  and  consequent- 
ly, whether  the  verb  should  be  in  the  singular  or  the  plu- 
ral number.  We  shall,  therefore,  set  down  a  number  of 
varied  examples  of  this  nature,  which  may  serve  as  some 
government  to  the  scholar,  with  respect  to  sentences  of  a 
similar  construction.  *  Prosperity,  with  humility,  renders 
its  possessor  truly  amiable.*  '  The  ship,  with  all  her  fur- 
niture, nvaa  destroyed.'  '  Not  only  his  estate,  his  reputa- 
tion too  kas  suffered  by  his  misconduct.'  *  The  general 
also,  in  conjunction  with  the  officers,  has  applied  for  re- 
dress.' '-  He  cannot  be  justified  ;  for  it  is  true,  that  the 
prince,  as  well  as  the  people,  ivas  blameworthy.'  *  The 
king,  with  his  life-guard,  ha^  just  passed  through  the  vil- 
lage.* *  In  the  mutual  influence  of  body  and  soul,  there 
i&  a  wisdom,  a  wonderful  wisdom,  which  we  cannot  fa- 
thom.' *  Virtue,  honoiu',  nay,  even  self-interest,  couBjiire 
to  recommend  the  measure.'  *  Patriotism,  morality, 
every  public  and  private  consideration,  demand  our  sub- 
mission to  just  and  lawful  government.'  *  Notlimg  delights 
me  so  much  as  the  works  of  nature.' 

In  support  of  such  forms  of  expression  as  the  following, 
we  see  the  authority  of  Hume,  Priestley,  and  other  writers, 
and  we  annex  them  for  the  reader's  consideration.  '  A 
long  course  of  time,  with  a  variety  of  accidents  and  cir- 
cumstances, are  requisite  to  produce  those  revolutions.' 
*  The  king,  with  the  lords  and  commons,  form  an  excel- 
lent frame  of  government.'  *  The  side  A,  with  the  sides 
B  and  C,  comfiose  the  triangle.*     *  The  fire  communicated 


132  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  (Rulc  3. 

itself  to  the  bed,  which,  with  the  furniture  of  the  room  anU 
a  valuctble  library,  were  all  entirely  consumed.'  It  is, 
however,  proper  to  observe,  that  these  modes  of  expres- 
sion do  not  appear  to  be  warranted  by  the  just  principles 
of  construction.  The  words,  '  A  long  course  of  time,' 
*  The  king,'  *  The  side  A,'  and  '  which,'  are  the  true 
nominatives  to  the  respective  verbs.  In  the  last  example, 
the  word  all  should  be  expunged.  As  the  preposition 
with  governs  the  objective  case,  in  English  ;  and,  if  trans- 
lated into  Latin,  would  govern  the  ablative  case,  it  is  mani- 
fest, that  the  clauses  following  wit/iy  in  the  preceding  sen- 
tences, cannot  form  any  part  of  the  noininative  case.  They 
cannot  be  at  the  same  time  in  the  objective  and  the  nomi- 
native cases.  The  following  sentence  appears  to  be  unex- 
ceptionable ;  and  may  serve  to  explain  the  others.  '  The 
lords  and  commons  are  essential  branches  of  the  British 
constitution  :  the  king,  with  them,  forms  an  excellent 
frame  of  government.'* 

S.  If  the  singular  nouns  and  pronouns,  which  are  joined 
together  by  a  copulative  conjunction,  be  of  several  persons, 
in  making  the  plural  pronoun  agree  with  them  in  person, 
the  second  person  takes  place  of  the  third,  and  the  first  of 
both  :  as,  '  James,  and  thou,  and  I,  are  attached  to  our 
country.'     '  Thou  and  he  shared  it  between  you.' 

RULE  III. 

The  conjunction  disjunctive  has  an  effect  con- 
trary to  that  of  the  conjunction  copulative  ;  for 
as  the  verb,  noun,  or  pronoun,  is  referred  to  the 
preceding  terms  taken  separately,  it  must  be  in 
the  singular  number :  as,  *  Ignorance  or  negli- 
gence has  caused  this  mistake  ; '  '  John,  James, 
or  Joseph,  intends  to  accompany  me;'  '  There 
is^  in  many  minds,  neither  knowledge  nor  under- 
standing.' 

The  following  sentences  are  variations  from  this  rule  : 
'  A  man  may  see  a  metaphor  or  an  allegory  in  a  picture, 

*  Thoug-h  the  construction  will  not  admit  of  a  plural  verb,  the 
sentence  would  certainly  stand  better  thus  :  *  The  king*,  tiie  lords, 


Rule  4.)  SYNTAX.  133 

as  well  as  read  them  in  a  description  ;*  ^  read  it*  <  Nei- 
ther character  nor  dialogue  were  yet  understood  ;*  <  ivas 
yet.*  *  It  must  indeed  be  confessed,  that  a  lampoon  or  a 
satire  do  not  carry  in  them  robbery  or  murder ;'  *  does  not 
cany  in  it*  <  Death,  or  some  worse  misfortune,  soon 
divide  them.*     It  ought  to  be  '  divides* 

1 .  When  singular  pronouns,  or  a  noun  and  pronoun,  of 
different  persons,  are  disjunctively  connected,  the  verb 
must  agree  with  that  person  which  is  placed  nearest  to  it : 
as,  '  I  or  thou  art  to  blame  ;'  '  Thou  or  I  am  in  fault ;' 
'  I,  or  thou,  or  he,  is  the  author  of  it  ;'  *  George  or  I  am 
the  person.*  But  it  would  be  better  to  say  ;  *  Either  I  am 
to  blame,  or  thou  art,*  &c. 

2.  When  a  disjunctive  occurs  between  a  singular  noun, 
or  pronoun,  and  a  plural  one,  the  verb  is  made  to  agree 
with  the  plural  noun  and  pronoun  :  as,  *  Neither  poverty 
nor  riches  nvei-e  injurious  to  him  ;'  *  I  or  they  were  of- 
fended by  it.*  But  in  this  case,  the  plural  noun  or  pro- 
noun, when  it  can  conveniently  be  done,  should  be  placed 
next  to  the  verb. 

RULE    IV. 

A  noun  of  multitude,  or  signifying  many,  may 
have  a  verb  or  pronoun  agreeing  with  it,  either 
of  the  singular  or  plural  number  ;  yet  not  with- 
out regard  to  the  import  of  the  word,  as  convey- 
ing unity  or  plurality  of  idea  :  as,  *  The  meeting 
xvas  large  ;'  '  The  parliament  is  dissolved  ;' 
'  The  nation  is  powerful ;'  '  My  people  do  not 
consider  :  theij  have  not  known  me  ;'  *  The 
multitude  eagerly  pursue  pleasure,  as  their  chief 
good  ; '  '  The  council  were  divided  in  their  sen- 
timents.' 

AVe  ought  to  consider  whether  the  term  will  immedi- 
ately suggest  the  idea  of  the  number  it  represents,  or 
whether  it  exhibits  to  the  mind  the  idea  of  the  whole  as 
one  thing.  In  the  former  case,  the  verb  ought  to  be  plu- 
ral ;  in  the  latter,  it  ought  to  be  singular.  Thus,  it  seems 
improper  to  say,  '  Tlie  peasantry  ^oes  barefoot,  and  the 
middle  sort  tnakes  use  of  wooden  shoes.*  It  would  be 
M 

ft    . 


134  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  (Rulc  5. 

better  to  say,  '  The  peasantiy  go  barefoot,  and  the  mid- 
dle sort  7rmke  use/  &c.  because  the  idea  in  both  these 
cases,  is  that  of  a  number.  On  the  contrary,  there  is  a 
harshness  in  the  following  sentences,  in  which  nouns  of 
number  have  verbs  plural  ;  because  the  ideas  they  repre- 
sent seem   not  to  be    sufficiently  divided  in  the  mind 

*  The  court  of  Rome  were  not  without  solicitude.'  '  The 
house  of  commons  ivere  of  small  weight.*  '  The  house 
cf  lords  ivere  so  much  influenced  by  these  reasons.*  '  Ste- 
phen's party  ivere  entirely  broken  up  by  the  captivity  of 
their  leader.'  ^  An  army  of  twenty-four  thousand  ivere 
assembled.'  '  What  reason  have  the  church  of  Rome  for 
proceeding  in  this  manner  r'  '  There  is  indeed  no  consti- 
tution so  tame  and  careless  of  their  own  defence.'  '  All 
the  virtues  of  mankind  are  to  be  counted  upon  a  few  fin- 
gers, but  his  follies  and  vices  are  innumerable.*  Is  not 
wankiiid  in  this  place  a  noun  of  multitude,  and  such  as  re- 
quires the  pronoun  referring  to  it  to  be  in  the  plural  num- 
ber, their  ? 

RULE    V. 

Pronouns  must  always  agree  with  their  antece- 
dents, and  the  nouns  for  which  they  stand,  in 
gender  and  number  :  as,  *  This  is  the  friend 
whom  I  love  ;'  '  That  is  the  vice  ivhi(;h  I  hate  ;' 

*  The  king  and  the  queen  had  put  on  their  robes ;' 

*  The  moon  appears,,  and  she  shines,  but  the 
light  is  not  her  o^vn.' 

The  relative  is  of  the  same  person  as  the  ante- 
cedent, and  the  verb  agrees  with  it  accordingly  : 
as,  *  Thou  who  lovest  wisdom  ; '  '  I  who  speak 
from  experience.' 

Of  this  rule  there  are  many  violations  to  be  met  witli  ; 
a  few  of  which  may  be  suliicicnt  to  put  the  learner  on  his 
guard.  ^  Each  of  the  sexes  should  keep  within  its  par- 
ticular bounds,  and  content  rhemselvea  with  the  advantages 
of  their  particular  disuicts  :'  better  thus  :  *  The  sexes 
should  keep  within  their  particular  bounds,'  Sec.  *  Can 
any  one,  on  their  entrance  into  tiie  world,  be  fully  secure 
that   they  shall  not  be   deceived  l"  '  on  his  entrance,'  and 


Rule  5.)  SYNTAX.  135 

<  that  he  shall.'  *  One  should  not  think  too  favourably  of 
ourselves  :'  '  of  one's  self?  '  He  had  one  acquaintance 
which  poisoned  his  principles  ;'  '  ivho  poisoned.'  ^ 

Every  relative  must  have  an  antecedent  to  which  it  re- 
fers, either  expressed  or  implied :  as,  '  Who  is  fatal  to 
others  is  so  to  himself;'  that  is,  *  the  man  ivho  is  fatal  to 
others.* 

IVho^  which,  nvhat,  and  the  relative  that,  though  in  the 
objective  case,  are  always  placed  before  the  verb  ;  as  arc 
also  their  compounds  whoever,  whosoever,  kc.  as,  '  He 
whom  ye  seek  ;'  *  This  is  what,  or  the  thing  which,  or 
that,  you  want ;'  '  Whomsoever  you  please  to  appoint.' 

Jfhat  is  sometimes  applied,  in  a  manner  which  appears 
to  be  exceptionable  :  as,  '  All  fevers,  except  what  are 
called  nervous,*  Sec,     It  would  be  better  to  say,  <•  except 

xose  which  arc  called  nervous.' 

1.  Personal  pronouns  being  used  to  supply  the  place  of 
'the  noun,  are  not  employed  in  the  same  part  of  a  sentence 
as  the  noun  which  they  represent ;  for  it  would  be  im- 
proper to  say,  *  The  king  he  is  just  ;*  '  I  saw  her  the 
queen  ;'  *  The  men  they  were  there  ;'  *  Many  words  they 
darken  speech  ;'  *  My  banks  they  are  furnished  with  bees.* 
These  personals  are  superfluous,  as  there  is  not  the  least 
occasion  for  a  substitute  in  the  same  part  where  the  prin- 
cipal word  is  present.  The  nominative  case  they,  in  the 
following  sentence,  is  also  superfluous  ;  *  Who,  instead  of 
going  about  doing  good,  they  arc  perpetually  intent  upou 
doing  mischief* 

2.  The  pronoun  that  is  frequently  applied  to  persons  as 
well  as  to  things  ;  but  after  an  adjective  in  the  superlative 
degree,  and  after  the  pronominal  adjective  same,  it  is  gen- 
erally used  in  preference  to  who  or  which  :  as,  '  Charles 
XII.  king  of  Sweden,  was  one  of  the  greatest  madmen 
that  the  world  ever  saw  ;'  '  Catiline's  followers  were  the 
most  profligate  that  could  be  found  in  any  city.'  '  He  is  thp 
s^me  man  that  we  saw  before  '  There  are  cases  wherein 
we  cannot  conveniently  dispense  with  this  relative  as  ap- 
plied to  persons :  as  first,  after  who  the  mterrogative  ; 
*  Who  that  has  any  sense  of  religion,  would  have  argued 
thus  V  Secondly,  when  persons  make  but  a  part  of  the 
antecedent ;  *  The  woman,  and  the  estate,  that  became  his 


li^ 


156  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  (Rulc  5. 

portion,  were  too  much  for  his  moderation.'  In  neither  of 
these  examples  could  any  other  relative  have  been  used. 

3.  The  pronouns  ^whichsoever^  ivhosoever^  and  the  like, 
are  elegantly  divided  by  the  interposition  of  the  corres- 
ponding substantives :  thus,  *  On  whichsoever  side  the 
king  cast  his  eyes  ;'  would  have  sounded  better,  if  written, 

*  On  which  side  soever,'  Sec. 

4.  Many  persons  are  apt,  in  conversation,  to  put  the 
objective  case  of  the  personal  pronouns,  in  the  place  of 
the^'e  and  those :  as,  *  Give  me  them  books  ;*  instead  of 

*  those  books.*  We  may  sometimes  find  this  fault  even  in 
writing:  as,  *  Observe  them  three  there/  We  also  fre- 
quently meet  with  those  instead  of  they^  at  the  beginning- 
of  a  sentence,  and  where  there  is  no  particular  reference 
to  an  antecedent :  as,  *  Those  that  sow  in  tears,  sometimes 
reap  in  joy.*     They  that,  or  they  who  sow  in  tears. 

It  is  not,  however,  always  easy  to  say,  whether  a  per- 
sonal pronoun  or  a  demonstrative  is  preferable,  in  certain 
constructions.  ^  We  are  not  unacquainted  with  the  cal- 
umny of  them  [or  those]  who  openly  make  use  of  the 
warmest  professions.' 

5.  In  some  dialects,  the  word  lohat  is  improperly  used 
for  that^  and  sometimes  we  find  it  in  this  sense  in  writing  : 

*  They  will  never  believe  but  nvhat  I  have  been  entirely  to 
blame.*     '  I  am  not   satisfied  but  wliat,'  &c.  instead  of 

*  but  that^  The  word  someivhat^  in  the  following  sen- 
tence, seems  to  be  used  improperly.  *  These  punish- 
ments seem  to  have  been  exercised  in  somewhat  an  arbi- 
trajy  manner.*  Sometimes  we  read,  *  In  somewhat  of.* 
The  meaning  is,  *  in  a  manner  which  is  in  some  respects 
arbiti'ary.' 

6.  The  pronoun  relative  nvho  is  so  much  appropriated 
to  persons,  that  there  is  generally  harshness  in  the  appli- 
cation of  it,  except  to  the  proper  names  of  persons,  or  the 
general  terms  man^  woman,  &c.  A  term  which  only  im- 
plies the  idea  of  persons,  and  expresses  them  by  some 
circumstance  or  epithet,  will  hardly  authorize  the  use  of 
it  :  as,  *  That  faction  in  England  wAo  most  powerfully 
opposed  his  arbitrary  pretensions.'  '  That  faction  ivhich,* 
would  have  been  better  ;  and  the  same  remark  will  serve 
for  the  following  examples  :  <  France,  ivho  was  in  alliance 


Rule  , 


ule  5.)  SYNTAX.  137 

with  Sweden.'  'The  court,  wAo,'  Sec.  *  The  cavahy 
wAo,*  &c.  *  The  cities  who  aspired  at  liberty.*  '  That 
party  among  us  who^*  &c.  >  The  family  whom  they  con-i 
sider  as  usurpers.' 

In  some  cases  it  may  be  doubtful,  whether  this  pronoun 
is  properly  applied  or  not  :  as,  *■  The  number  of  substan- 
tial inhabitants  with  whom  some  cities  abound.*  For  when 
a  term  directly  and  necessarily  implies  persons,  it  may  in 
many  cases  claim  the  personal  relative.  '  None  of  the 
company  whom  he  most  affected,  could  cure  him  of  the 
melancholy  under  which  he  laboured.'  The  word  acquain- 
tance may  have  the  same  construction.' 

7.  We  hardly  consider  little  children  as  persons,  be- 
cause that  term  gives  us  the  idea  of  reason  and  reflection  : 
and  therefore  the  application  of  the  personal  relative  who^ 
in  this  case,  seems  to  be  harsh  :  '  A  child  w/io.'  It  is 
still  more  improperly  applied  to  animals  :  *  A  lake  fre- 
quented by  that  fowl  whom  nature  has  taught  to  dip  the 
wing  in  water.' 

8.  When  the  name  of  a  person  is  used  merely  as  a 
name,  and  does  not  refer  to  the  person,  the  pronoun  which 
ought  to  be  used,  and  not  who  :  as,  '  It  is  no  wonder  if 
such  a  man  did  not  shine  at  the  court  of  queen  Elizabeth, 
who  was  but  another  name  for  prudence  and  economy  ' — 
The  word  whose  begins  likewise  to  he  restricted  to  per- 
sons ;  yet  it  is  not  done  so  generally,  but  that  good  wri- 
ters, even  in  prose,  use  it  when  speaking  of  things  The 
construction  is  not,  however,  generally  pleasing,  as  we 
may  see  in  the  following  instances  :  '  Pleasure,  whose  na- 
ture,' &c.  *  Call  every  production,  whose  parts  and  whose 
nature,'  &;e. 

In  one  case,  however,  custom  authorizes  us  to  use 
7uhich,  with  respect  to  persons  ;  and  that  is  when  we  want 
to  distinguish  one  person  of  two,  or  a  particular  person 
among  a  number  of  others.  We  should  then  say,  '  Hhich 
of  the  two,*  or  *  Which  of  them,  is  he  or  siie  ?' 

9.  As  the  pronoun  relative  has  no  distinction  of  number, 
we  sometimes  find  an  amijiguity  in  the  use  of  it :  as  when 
we  say,  *  The  disciples  of  Christ,  whcm  we  imitate  ;'  we 
may  mean  the  imitation  either  of  Christ,  or  of  his  disci- 

Ks.     The  accuracy  and  clearness  of  the  sjentence,  de- 
M2 
■ 


138  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  (Rulc  5. 

pend  very  much  upon  the  proper  and  determmate  use  of 
the  relative,  so  that  it  may  readily  present  its  antecedent 
to  the  mind  of  the  hearer  or  reader,  without  any  obscurity 
or  ambiguity. 

10.  It  is  and  it  ivas,  are  often,  after  the  manner  of  the 
French,  used  in  a  plural  construction,  and  by  some  of  our 
best  writers  :  as,  *  II  is  either  a  few  great  men  who  de- 
cide for  the  whole,  or  it  is  the  rabble  that  follow  a  sedi- 
tious ringleader  ;'  *  It  is  they  that  are  the  real  authors, 
though  the  soldiers  are  the  actors  of  the  revolutions  ;*  *  It 
was  the  heretics  that  first  began  to  rail,'  &c. ;  <  *Tis  these 
that  early  taint  the  female  mind.*  '  This  licence  in  the 
construction  of  it  isy  (if  it  be  proper  to  admit  it  at  all) 
has,  however,  been  certainly  abused  in  the  following  sen- 
tence, which  is  thereby  made  a  very  awkward  one.  '  It 
is  wonderful  the  very  few  accidents,  which,  in  several 
years,  happen  from  this  practice.* 

1 1 .  The  interjections  O  /  Oh  /  and  >/1h  I  require  the 
objective  case  of  a  pronoun  in  the  first  person  after  them  : 
as,  *  O  me  !  Oh  me  !  Ah  me  1*  But  the  nominative  case 
in  the  second  person  :  as,  *  O  thou  persecutor  !*  '  Oh  ye 
hypocrites  I'  ^  O  thou  who  dwellest,*  &c. 

The  neuter  pronoun,  by  an  idiom  peculiar  to  the  En- 
glish language,  is  frequently  joined  in  explanatory  senten- 
ces, M'ith  a  noun  or  pronoun  of  the  masculine  or  feminine 
gender  :  as,  ^  It  was  I ;'  'It  was  the  man  or  woman  that 
did  it.* 

The  neuter  pronoun  it  is  sometimes  omitted  and  un- 
derstood ;  thus  we  say,  '  As  appears,  as  follows  ;*  for  *  As^ 
it  appears,  as  it  follows  ;*  and  '  May  be  ;*  for  '  It  may 
be.* 

The  neuter  pronoun  it  is  sometimes  employed  to  ex- 
press ; 

1st.  The  subject  of  any  discourse  or  inquiry:  as,  <  It 
liappened  on  a  summer's  day  ;*  *  Who  is  it  that  calls  on 
me?' 

2d.  The  state  or  condition  of  any  person  or  thing  :  as, 
'•  How  is  it  with  you  ?' 

3d.  The  thing,  whatever  it  be,  that  is  the  cause  of  any 
effect  or  event,  or  any  person  considered  merely  as  a 


--'I^S 


0r 


Rule  6.)  SYNTAX.  159 

cause  :  as,  '  We  heard  her  say  U  was  not  he  ;'  <  The  truth 
is,  ie  was  I  that  helped  her.' 

RULE    VI. 

The  relative  is  the  nominative  case  to  the 
erb,  when  no  nominative  comes  between  it  and 

e  verb  :  as,  *  The  master  who  taught  us  ;' 
The  trees  which  are  planted.' 

When  a  nominative  comes  between  the  rela- 
tive and  the  verb,  the  relative  is  governed  by 
some  word  in  its  own  member  of  the  sentence  : 
as,  '  He  who  preserves  me,  to  whom  I  owe  my 
being,  whose  I  am,  and  whom  I  serve  is  eter- 
nal.' 

In  the  several  members  of  the  last  sentence,  the  rela- 
tive performs  a  different  office.  In  the  first  member,  it 
marks  the  agent ;  in  the  second,  it  submits  to  the  govern* 
ment  of  the  preposition  ;  in  the  third,  it  represents  the 
possessor  ;  and  in  the  fourth,  the  object  of  an  action  ;  and 
therefore  it  must  be  in  the  three  different  cases,  corres- 
pondent to  those  offices. 

When  both  the  antecedent  and  relative  become  nomi- 
natives, each  to  different  verbs,  the  relative  is  the  nomi- 
native to  the  former,  and  the  antecedent  to  the  latter 
verb  :  as, '  True  /ihiloso/ihy,  vjhich  is  the  ornament  of  our 
nature,  consists  more  in  the  love  of  our  duty,  and  the  prac- 
tice of  virtue,  than  in  great  talents  and  extensive  know- 
ledge.* 

A  few  instances  of  erroneous  construction,  will  illus- 
trate both  the  branches  of  the  sixth  rule.  The  three  fol- 
lowing refer  to  the  first  part.  '  How  can  we  avoid  being 
grateful  to  those  whom,  by  repeated  kind  offices,  have 
proved  themselves  our  real  friends  ?'  *  These  are  the 
men  whom,  you  might  suppose,  were  the  authors  of  the 
work  :*  *  If  you  were  here,  you  would  find  three  or  four, 
whom  you  would  say  passed  their  time  agreeably  :*  in  all 
these  places  it  should  be  tuho  instead  of  nuhom.  The  two 
latter  sentences  contain  a  nominative  between  the  relative 
and  the  verb  j  ai>d,  therefore,  seem  to  contravene  the 


140  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  (Rule  7. 

rule :  but  the  student  will  reflect,  that  it  is  not  the  nomi- 
native of  the  verb  with  which  the  relative  is  connected. 
The  remaining  examples  refer  to  the  second  part  of  the 
rule.  *  Men  of  fine  talents  are  not  always  the  persons  who 
we  should  esteem/  '  The  persons  who  you  dispute  with, 
are  precisely  of  your  opinion.'  '  Our  tutors  are  our 
benefactors,  who  we  owe  obedience  to,  and  who  we  ought 
to  love.*  In  these  sentences,  whom  should  be  used  instead 
of  tvho. 

■  1,  When  the  relative  pronoun  is  of  the  interrogative 
kind,  the  noun  or  pronoun  containing  the  answer,  must  be 
in  the  same  case  as  that  which  contains  the  question :  as, 
*  Whose  books  are  these  ?  They  are  John*s*  *  Who  gave 
them  to  him  ?  We*  '•  Of  tvho7n  did  you  buy  them  ?  Of 
a  bookseller  ;  him  who  lives  at  the  Bible  and  Crown.' 

<  Whom  did  you  see  there  ?  Both  him  and  the  shopman.* 
The  learner  will  readily  comprehend  this  rule,  by  supply- 
ing the  words  which  are  understood  in  the  answers.  Thus, 
to  express  the  answers  at  large,  we  should  say,  '  They  are 
John's  books.'  '  We  gave  them  to  him.'  '  We  bought 
them  of  him  who  lives,'  Sec.  <  We  saw  both  hina  and  the 
shopman.' — As  the  relative  pronoun,  when  used  inter- 
rogatively, refers  to  the  subsequent  word  or  phrase  con- 
taining the  answer  to  the  question,  that  word  or  phrase 
may  properly  be  termed  the  subsequent  to  the  interroga- 
tive. 

AULE    VII. 

When  the  relative  is  preceded  by  two  nomi- 
natives of  different  persons,  the  relative  and  verb 
may  agree  in  person  with  either,  according  to  the 
sense  :  as,  ^  I  am  the  man  who  command  yon  ;' 
or,  '  I  am  the  man  who  commands  you.' 

The  form  of  the  first  of  the  two  preceding  sentencesj 
expresses  the  meaning  rather  obscurely  It  would  be 
more  perspicuous  to  say ;  '  I,  who  command  you,  am  the 
man.'  Perhaps  the  difference  of  meaning,  produced  by 
referring  the  relative  to  different  antecedents,  will  be 
more  evident  to  the  learner,  in  the  following  sentences  : 

<  I  am  the  general  v,^ho  give^  the  orders  to-day  j'  '  I  am 


Rule  8.)  SV3TTAX.  141 

the  general,  who  give  the  orders  to-day  ;*  that  is,  '  I,  who 
give  the  orders  to-day,  am  the  general.' 

When  the  relative  and  the  verb  have  been  determined 
to  agree  with  either  of  the  preceding  nominatives,  that 
agreement  must  be  preserved  throughout  the  sentence  ; 
as  in  the  following  instance  :  *  I  am  the  Lord  that  maketh 
all  things ;  that  stretcheth  forth  the  heavens  alone.*  Isa, 
xliv.  24.  Thus  far  is  consistent :  The  Lord^  in  the  third 
person,  is  the  antecedent,  and  the  verb  agrees  with  the 
relative  in  the  third  person  :  *  I  am  the  Lord,  which  Lord, 
or  he  that  maketh  all  things.*  If  /  were  made  the  antece- 
dent, the  relative  and  veiHi)  should  agree  with  it  in  the 
first  person  :  as,  ^/am  the  Lord,  that  make  all  things, 
that  stretch  forth  the  heavens  alone.*  But  should  it  fol- 
low ;  *  That  sfireadeth  abroad  the  earth  by  myself  ;*  there 
would  arise  a  confusion  of  persons,  and  a  manifest  sole- 
cism. 

RULE    VIII. 

Every  adjective,  and  every  adjective  pro- 
noun, belongs  to  a  substantive,  expressed  or  un- 
derstood :  as,  *  He  is  a  goody  as  well  as  a  roise 
man;''  ''Few  are  happy;''  that  is,  ^persons;'* 
'  This  is  a  pleasant  walk  ;'  that  is,  '  This  walk 
isy^  Sec. 

Adjective  pronouns  must  agree,  in  number, 
with  their  substantives :  as,  '  This  book,  these 
books ;  that  sort,  those  sorts ;  another  road, 
other  roads.' 

I.    ADJECTIVE  PRONOUNS. 

A  few  instances  of  the  breach  of  this  rule  are  here  ex- 
liibited.  *  I  have  not  travelled  this  twenty  years  ;*  '  thene 
twenty/  <  I  am  not  recommending  these  kind  of  suffer- 
ing ;*  f  this  kind.*  *  Those  set  of  books  was  a  valuable 
present  ;*  *  that  set* 

1.  The  word  means  in  the  singular  number,  and  the 
phrases,  '  By  this  means,*  <  By  that  means,*  are  used  by 
our  best  and  most  correct  writers  ;  namely,  Bacon,  Tit- 


142  ENGLISH    GRAMMAK.  (Rlllc  8, 

lotson,  Atterbuiy,  Addison,  Steele,  Pope,  Sec*  They  are, 
indeed,  in  so  general  and  approved  use,  that  it  would  ap- 
pear awkward,  if  not  affected,  to  apply  the  old  singular 
form,  and  say,  '  By  this  mean  ;  by  that  mean  ;  it  was  by 
a  mean  ;'  although  it  is  more  agreeable  to  the  general 
analogy  of  the  language.  *  The  word  means  (says  Priest- 
ley) belongs  to  the  class  of  words,  wdiich  do  not  change 
their  termination  on  account  of  number ;  for  it  is  used 
alike  in  both  numbers.' 

*  ^  By  this  meansy  he  had  them  the  more  at  vantage,  being 
th'ed  and  harassed  with  a  long  march.'  Bacon. 

*  By  t/ds  means  one  great  restraint  from  doing  evil,  would  be 
taken  away.' — '  And  this  is  an  admirable  means  to  improve  men 
in  virtue.' — '  By  that  means  they  have  rendered  their  duty  more 
difficult.*  TillotsQU. 

*  It  renders  us  carele.ss  of  approving  ourselves  to  God,  and  by 
that  means  securing  the  continuance  of  his  goodness' — *  A  good 
character,  wlien  estabHshed,  should  not  be  rested  in  as  an  end, 
but  employed  as  a  means  of  doing  still  further  good.'     Atterlniry. 

*  By  this  means  they  are  happy  in  each  other.' — '  He  by  that 
means  preserves  his  superiority.'  Addison. 

*  Your  vanity  by  this  means  will  want  its  food.'  Steele, 
,  *  By  this  means  alone,  their  greatest  obstacles  v/ill  vanish.' 

Pope. 

'  Which  custom  has  proved   the  most  effectual  ineans  to  ruin. 

the  nobles.'  Dean  Swift. 

'  There  /s  no   means  of  es«apnig  the  persecution.' — '  Faith  is 

not  Old}  a  tneans  of  obeying,  but  a  principal  act  of  obedience.' 

Dr.  Young: 

'  He  looked  on  money  as  a  necessary  means  of  maintaining  and 

increasing  power.'  Jjord  Littleton'* s  Henry  II. 

*  John  was  too  much  intimidated  not  to  embrace  every  means  :^, 
afforded  for  his  safety.*  Goldsmith.'i 

*  Lest  this  means  should  fail.' — *  By  means  of  ship-money,  the^ 
late  king,'  &c. — *  The  only  means  of  securing  a  durable  peace.' 

Ilnme.  I 

*  By  this  means  there  was  nothing  left  to  the  Parliament  of 
Ireland,'  &c.  Blackstone. 

'  By  this  means  so  many  slaves  escaped  out  of  the  hands  of^^ 
their  masters.*  Dr.  liobertson," 

*  By  this  means  they  bear  witness  to  each  other.'  Burke. 
^  By  this  means  the  wrath  of  man  was  madfe  to  turn  against^ 

itself.'  Dr    Blair. 

*  .\  magazine,  which  has,  by  this  meaiis,  contained,'  Sec— ' 
*  Birds  in  general,  procure  their  food  by  means  of  their  beak.* 

Dr.  Fale^ 


Rule  8.)  SYNTAX.  143 

The  word  aynends  is  used  in  this  manner,  in  the  follow- 
ing sentences :  '  Though  he  did  not  succeed,  he  gained  the 
approbation  of  his  countiy  ;  and  with  this  amends  he  was 
content.'  '  Peace  of  mind  is  an  honourable  amends  for  the 
sacrifices  of  interest.'  *  In  return,  he  received  the  thanks 
of  his  employers,  and  the  present  of  a  large  estate  :  these 
were  ample  amends  for  all  his  labours.*  '  We  have  descri- 
bed the  rewards  of  vice  :  the  good  man's  amends  are  of  a 
different  nature.' 

It  can  scarcely  be  doubted,  that  this  word  ame^ids  (like 
the  word  m^ans)  had  formerly  its  correspondent  form  in 
the  singular  number,  as  it  is  derived  from  the  French 
amende^  though  now  it  is  exclusively  established  in  the  plu- 
ral form.  If,  therefore,  it  be  alledged  that  mean  should  be 
applied  in  the  singular,  because  it  is  derived  from  the 
French  moyen^  the  same  kind  of  argument  may  be  advan- 
ced in  favour  of  the  singular  amende  ;  and  the  general  anal- 
ogy of  the  language  may  also  be  pleaded  in  support  of  it. 

Campbell,  in  his  *  Philosophy  of  Rhetoric,'  has  the  fol- 
lowing remark  on  the  subject  before  us  :  '  No  persons  of 
taste  will,  I  presume,  venture  so  far  to  violate  the  present 
usage,  and  consequently  to  shock  the  ears  of  the  general- 
ity of  readers,  as  to  say,  '  By  this  mean^  by  that  mean,* 

LoAvth  and  Johnson  seem  to  be  against  the  use  of  means 
in  the  singular  number.  They  do  not,  however,  speak 
decisively  on  the  point ;  but  rather  dubiously,  and  as  if 
they  knew  that  they  were  questioning  eminent  authorities, 
as  well  as  general  practice.  That  they  were  not  decidedly 
against  the  application  of  this  word  to  the  singular  num- 
ber, appears  from  their  own  language  :  '  Whole  senten- 
ces, whether  simple  or  compound,  may  become  members 
of  other  sentences  by  means  of  some  additional  connex^ 
ion.* — Dr.  Lowth's  Introduction  to  Kngliah  Grammar. 

There  is  no  other  method  of  teaching  that  of  which 
any  one  is  ignorant,  but  by  means  of  something  already 
linown.' — Dr.  Johnson.     Idler. 

It  is  remarkable  that  our  present  version  of  the  Scrip- 
tures makes  no  use,  as  far  as  the  Compiler  can  discover, 
of  the  word  mean  ;  though  there  are  several  instances  to 
be  found  in  it  of  the  use  of  means^  in  the  sense  and  con- 
ni^xion  contended  for.     '  By  this  meqns  thou  shalt  have  no 


144  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  (Rulc  8. 

portion  on  this  side  the  river.'  Ezra  iv.  1 6.  *  That  by 
means  oi  deaths*  Sec.  Heb.  ix.  15.  It  will  scarcely  be 
pretended,  that  the  translators  of  the  sacred  volumes  did 
not  accurately  understand  the  English  language  ;  ol'  that 
they  would  have  admitted  one  form  of  this  word,  and  re- 
jected the  other,  had  not  their  determination  been  con- 
formable to  the  best  usage.  An  attempt  therefore  to  re- 
cover an  old  word,  so  long  since  disused  by  the  most 
correct  writers,  seems  not  likely  to  be  successful  ;  espe- 
cially as  the  rejection  of  it  is  not  attended  with  any  incon- 
venience. 

The  practice  of  the  best  and  most  correct  writers,  or  a 
great  majority  of  them,  corroborated  by  general  usage;, 
forms,  during  its  continuance,  the  standard  of  language  ; 
especially,  if,  in  particular  instances,  this  practice  con- 
tinue, after  objection  and  due  consideration.  Every  con- 
nexion and  application  of  words  and  phrases,  thus  support- 
ed, must  therefore  be  proper,  and  entitled  to  respect,  if 
not  exceptionable  in  a  moral  point  of  view. 

' ^'  Si  volet  usus 

*  Quern  penes  arbitrium  est,  etjus,  et  norma  loquendi.'      Hor. 

On  this  principle,  many  forms  of  expression,  not  less 
deviating  from  the  general  analogy  of  the  language,  than 
those  before  mentioned,  are  to  be  considered  as  strictly 
proper  and  justifiable.  Of  this  kind  are  the  following. 
*  jYone  of  them  are  varied  to  express  the  gender  ;*  and 
yet  none  originally  signified  no  one.  '  He  //zms<?// shall  do 
the  work :'  here,  what  was  at  first  appropriated  to  the 
objective,  is  now  properly  used  as  the  nominative  case.— 
'  You  have  behaved  yourselves  well  :*  in  this  example, 
the  word  you  is  put  in  the  nominative  case  plural,  with 
strict  propriety  ;  though  formerly  it  was  confined  to  the 
objective  case,  and  ye  exclusively  used  for  the  nomina- 
tive. • 

With  respect  to  anomalies  and  variations  of  language) 
thus  established,  it  is  the  grammarian's  business  to  sub- 
mit, not  to  remonstrate.  In  pertinaciously  opposing  thel 
decision  of  proper  authority,  and  contending  for  obsolete 
.modes  of  expression,  he  may,  indeed,  display  learning  and 
critical  sagacity  ;  and,  in  some  degree,  obscure  i)oints 
that  are  sulTiciently  clear  and  decided  j  but  he  cannot  rea^ 


Rules.)  SYNTAX.  145 

sonably  hope,  either  to  succeed  in  his  aims,  or  to  assist 
the  learner,  in  discovering  and  respecting  the  true  stand- 
ard and  principles  of  language. 

Cases  which  custom  has  left  dubious,  are  certainly  with- 
in the  grammarian's  province.  Here  he  may  reason  and 
remonstrate  on  the  ground  of  derivation,  analogy,  and  pro- 
priety ;  and  his  reasonings  may  refine  and  improve  the 
language  :  but  when  authority  speaks  out  and  decides  tli6 
point,  it  were  perpetually  to  unsettle  the  language,  to  ad- 
mit of  cavil  and  debate.  Anomalies  then,  under  the  limi- 
tation mentioned,  become  the  law,  as  clearly  as  the  plain- 
est analogies. 

The  reader  will  perceive  that,  in  the  following  senten- 
ces, the  use  of  the  word  mean^  in  the  old  form,  has  a  very 
uncouth  appearance  :  *  By  the  mean  of  adversity  we  are 
often  instructed.*  '  He  preserved  his  health  by  viean  of 
exercise.'  *  Frugality  is  one  mean  of  acquiring  a  com- 
petency.' They  should  be,  *  By  means  of  adversity,'  &c. 
'  By  means  of  exercise,*  &c.  '  Frugality  is  one  means^  &;c. 

Good  writers  do  indeed  make  use  of  the  substantive 
mean  in  the  singular  number,  and  in  that  number  only,  to 
signify  mediocrity,  middle  rate,  8cc.  as,  *  This  is  a  mean 
between  the  two  extremes.'  But  in  the  sense  of  instru- 
mentality, it  has  been  long  disused  by  the  best  authors, 
and  by  almost  every  writer. 

This  means  and  that  means  should  be  used  only  when 
they  refer  to  what  is  singular ;  these  means  and  those 
meansy  when  they  respect  plurals  ;  as,  *  He  lived  tem- 
perately, and  by  this  means  preserved  his  health  ;'  *  The 
scholars  were  attentive,  industrious,  and  obedient  to  their 
tutors  ;  and  by  these  means  acquired  knowledge.' 

We  have  enlarged  on  this  article,  that  the  young  stu- 
dent may  be  led  to  reflect  on  a  point  so  important,  as  that 
of  ascertaining  the  standard  of  propriety  in  the  use  of 
language. 

2.  When  two  persons  or  things  are  spoken  of  in  a  sen- 
tence, and  there  is  occasion  to  mention  them  again  for 
the  sake  of  distinction,  that  is  used  in  reference  to  the  for- 
mer, and  this^  in  reference  to  the  latter :  as,  *  Self-love, 
;which  is  the  spring  of  action  in  the  soul,  is  ruled  by  rea- 


146  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.'  (Rulc  8. 

son  :  but  for  that^  man  would  be  inactive  ;  and  but  for 
this^  he  would  be  active  to  no  end.* 

3.  The  distributive  adjective  pronouns,  mcA,  every ^ 
either^  agree  with  the  nouns,  pronouns,  and  verbs,  of  the 
singular  number  only  :  as,  '  The  king  of  Israel,  and  Je- 
hosophat,   the  king  of  Judah,    sat  each  on  his  throne  ;' 

*  Every  tree  is  known  by  its  fruit :'  unless  the  plural  noun 
convey  a  collective  idea  :  as,  '  Every  six  months  ;'  *  Every 
hundred  years  '-—The  following  phraser  are  exceptiona- 
ble. '  Let  each  esteem  others  better  than  themselves  ;' 
It  ought  to  be  *  himself.*  *  It  is  requisite  that  the  lan- 
guage should  be  both  perspicuous  and  correct  :  in  pro- 
portion as  either  of  these  two  qualities  are  wanting,  the 
language  is  imperfect  i*  it  should  be  *  is.*  '  *Tis  observ- 
able, that  every  one  of  the  letters  bear  date  after  his  ban- 
ishment, and  contain  a  complete  narrative  of  all  his  story 
afterwards  ;'  it  ought  to  be  '  bears*  and  *  they  contain* 

Either  is  often  used  improperly,  instead  of  each  :  as, 

*  The  king  of  Israel,  and  Jehosophat  the  king  of  Judah  sat 
either  of  them  on  his  throne  ;*  *  Nadab  and  Abihu,  the 
sons  of  Aaron,  took  either  of  them  his  censer.*  Each  sig- 
nifies both  of  them  taken  distinctly  or  separately  ;  either 
properly  signifies  only  the  one  or  the  other  of  them  taken 
disjunctively. 

In  the  course  of  this  work,  some  examples  will  appear 
of  erroneous  translations  from  the  Holy  Scriptures,  with 
respect  to  grammatical  construction  :  but  it  may  be  pro- 
per to  remark,  that  notwithstanding  these  verbal  mistakes, 
the  Bible,  for  the  size  of  it,  is  the  most  accurate  grammat- 
ical composition  that  we  have  in  the  English  language. 
The  authority  of  several  eminent  grammarians  might  be 
adduced  in  support  of  this  assertion  ;  but  it  may  be  suffi- 
cient to  mention  only  that  of  Dr.  Lowth,  who  says,  *  The 
present  translation  of  the  Bible,  is  the  best  standard  of  the 
English  language.* 

II.    ADJECTIVES. 

4.  Adjectives  arc  sometimes  improperly  applied  as  ad- 
verbs :  as,  '  indifferent  honest ;  excellent  well ;  miserable 
poor  ;*  instead  of  *  Indifferently  honest ;  excellently  well ; 
miserably  poor.'  '  He  behaved  himself  conformable  to  that 


Rule  8.)  SYNTAX.  147 

great  example  ;*  *  conformabiy  *  *  Endeavour  to  live  here- 
after suitable  to  a  person  in  thy  station  ;'  ^suitably'  '  I  can 
never  think  so  very  mean  of  him  ;*  *  meanly*  ^  He  de- 
scribes this   river    agreeable  to  the  common  reading :' 

*  agreeably.^     '  Agreeable  to  my  promise,  I  now  WTite  :* 

*  agreeably?  *  Thy  exceeding  great  reward  :'  When 
united  to  an  adjective,  or  adverb  not  ending  in  ly^  the  word 
exceeding  has  ly  added  to  it  :  as,  *  exceedingly  dreadfut, 
exceedingly  great  :'  exceedingly  well,  exceedingly  more 
active  :*  but  when  it  is  joined  to  an  adverb  or  adjective, 
having  that  termination,  the  ly  is  omitted  :  as,  *  Sorue 
men  think  exceeding  clearly,  and  reason  exceeding  forci- 
bly :*  *  Shd  appeared,  on  this  occasion,  exceeding  lovely.* 

*  He  acted  in  this  business  bolder  than  was  expected  :* 
'  They  behaved  the  noblest^  because  they  were  disinterest- 
ed.* They  should  have  been,  *  more  boldly  ;  most  nobly  *—^ 
The  adjective  pronoun  such  is  often  misapplied  :  as,  *  He 
was  such  an  extravagant  young  man,  that  he  spent  his 
whole  patrimony  in  a  few  years  :*  it  should  be,  '  so  ex- 
travagant a  young  man.*  *  I  never  before  saw  such  large 
trees  :*  *  saw  trees  so  large*  When  we  refer  to  the  spe- 
cies or  nature  of  a  thing,  the  word  suc/i  is  properly  appli- 
ed :  as,  *  Such  a  temper  is  seldom  found  :'  biit  when  de- 
gree is  signified,  we  use  the  word  so  :  as,  ^  So  bad  a  tem- 
per is  seldom  found.' 

Adverbs  are  likewise  improperly  used  as  adjectives  : 
as,  *  The  tutor  addressed  him  in  terms  rather  warm,  but 
suitably  to  his  offence  ;*  '  suitable.*  <  They  were  seen 
wandering  about  solitarily  and  distressed  ;'  ^solitary.*  '  He 
lived  in  a  planner  agreeably  to  the  dictates  of  reason  and 
religion;'  ^agreeable.*  *  The  study  of  syntax  should  be 
previously  to  that  of  punctuation  ;*  ^  previous."^ 

5.  Double  comparatives  and  superlatives  should  he 
avoided  :  such  as,  *  A  worser  conduct  ;'  *  On  lesser 
hopes  ;'  *  A  more  serener  temper  ;*  '  The  most  straitest 
sect  ;*  '  A  more  superior  work.*  They  should  be,  '  worse 
conduct  :*  '  less  hopes  ;'  'a  more  serene  temper  ;'  «  the 
straitest  sect  j*  '  a  superior  work.' 

*  For  the  rule  to  determine,  whether  an  adjective  or  an  adverb 
It  to  be  used,  see  English  Bjcercises.    Eleventh  edition,  pajje  1^0. 


L 


148  ENGLISH  gramma'r.         (RuIc  8. 

6.  Adjectives  that  have  m  themselves  a  superlative  sig- 
niiicatioii,  do  not  properly  admit  of  the  supeHative  or 
comparative  form  superadded  :  such  as,  '  Chief,  extreme, 
perfect,  rig-ht,  universal,  supreme,'  &c.  which  are  some- 
times improperly  written,  '  Chiefest,  extremest,  perfect- 
est,  rightest,  most  universal,  most  supreme,'  Sec.  The 
following  expressions  are  therefore  improper.  <  He  some- 
times claims  admission  to  the  chiefest  offices.'  '  The  quar- 
rel became  no  universal  and  national  ;*  '  A  method  of  at- 
taining the  rigiitest  and  greatest  happiness.'  The  phraser, 
so  perfect,  so  right,  so  extreme,  so  universal,  8cc  are  in- 
correct ;  because  they  imply  that  one  thhig  is  less  per- 
fect, less  extreme,  &;c.  than  another,  whicli  is  not  possi- 
ble. 

7.  Inaccuracies  arc  often  found  in  the  way  in  which  the 
degrees  of  comparison  are  applied  and  construed.  The 
following  are  examples  of  wrong  construction  in  this  res- 
pect :  '  This  noble  nation  hath,  of  all  others,  admitted 
fewer  corruptions.'  The  word  ffwer  is  here  construed 
precisely  as  if  it  were  the  Sujierladvc.  It  should  be, '  This 
noble  nation  hath  admitted  fewer  corruptions  than  any 
other.*  We  comipaonly  say,  '  This  is  the  weaker  of  the 
two  ;'  or,  '  The  weakest  of  the  two  :'  but  the  Ibrm^er  is 
the  regular  mode  of  expression,  because  there  are  only 
two  things  compared.  '  The  vice  of  covetousness  is 
what  enters  deepest  into  the  soul  of  any  other.'  '  He  cele- 
brates the  church  of  England  as  the  most  perfect  of  all 
others.'  Both  these  modes  of  expression  are  faulty  :  we 
should  not  say,  '  The  best  of  any  man,'  or  '  The  best  of  any 
other  man,'  for  'the  best  of  men.'  The  sentences  may  be 
corrected  by  substituting  the  comparative  in  the  room  of 
the  superlative.  '  The  vice,  Sec.  is  what  enters  deeper 
^nto  the  soul  than  any  other.'  '  He  celebrates.  Sec.  as  more 
perfect  than  any  other.*  It  is  also  possible  to  retain  the  su- 
perlative, and  render  the  expression  grammatical.  *  Covet- 
ousness,  of  all  vices,  enters  the  deepest  into  the  soul.*  '  He 
celebrates.  Sec.  as  the  most  perfect  of  all  churches.'  These 
sentences  contain  other  errors,  against  which  it  is  proper 
to  caution  the  learner.  The  woids  deefier  and  deepest^ 
being  intended  for  adverbs,  should  have  been  more  deefilyy 
most  deeply.     The  phrases  more  perfect  and  most  perfect y 


Rules.)  SYNTAX.  149^ 

are  improper  ;  because  perfection  admits  of  no  degrees  of 
comparison.  We  may  say  nearer  or  nearest  to  perfection, 
or  more  or  less  imperfect. 

8.  In  some  cases,  adjectives  should  not  be  separated 
from  their  substantives,  even  by  words  which  modify  their 
meaning,  and  make  but  one  sense  with  them ;  as,  '  A 
large  enough  number  surely.'  It  should  be,  '  A  number 
large  enough.*  *  The  lower  sort  of  people  are  good  enough 
judges  of  one  not  very  distant  from  them.* 

The  adjective  is  usually  placed  before  its  substantive  : 
as,  '  A  generous  man  ;*  '  How  amiable  a  woman  1'  The  in- 
stances in  which  it  comes  after  the  substantive,  are  the 
following. 

1st.  When  something  depends  upon  the  adjective  ;  and 
when  it  gives  a  better  sound,  especially  in  poetry  :  as,  *  A 
man  generous  to  his  enemies  ;*  '  Feed  me  with  food  con- 
venient forme  ;*  *  A  tree  thre^feet  thick.*  'A  body  of 
troops  fifty  thousand  strong;*  *  The  torrent  tumbling 
through  rocks  abrupt* 

2d.  When  the  adjective  is  emphatical :  as,  <  Alexander 
the  great  ;*  '  Lewis  the  bold  ;*  '  Goodness  infinite  ;  *  Wis- 
dom unsearchable* 

3d.  When  several  adjectives  belong  to  one  substantive  : 
as,  *  A  man  just,  wise,  and  charitable  ;*  'A  woman  modest, 
sensible,  and  virtuous.* 

4th.  When  the  adjective  is  preceded  by  an  adverb  :  as, 
'  A  boy  regularly  studious  ;*  *  A  girl  unaffect^ly  modest.* 

5th.  When  the  verb  Jo  be,  in  any  of  its  variations^ 
comes  between  a  substantive  and  an  adjective,  the  adjec- 
tive may  frequently  either  precede  or  follow  it :  as,  '  The 
man  is  happy  ;*  or,  ^  happy  is  the  man  who  makes  virtue 
his  choice  :*  *  The  interview  was  delightful  ;*  or,  '  delight- 
ful was  the  interview.* 

6th.  When  the  adjective  expresses  some  circumstance 
of  a  substantive  placed  after  an  active  verb  :  as,  *  Vanity 
often  renders  its  possessor  desfiicable*  In  an  exclama- 
tory sentence,  the  adjective  generally  precedes  the  sub- 
stantive ;  as,  *  How  despicable  does  vanity  often  render  its- 


possessor  \* 


N3 


150  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  (Rulc  8. 

There  is  sometimes  great  beauty,  as  well  as  force,  iii 
placing  the  adjective  before  the  verb,  and  the  substantive 
immefiately  after  it  :  as,  '  Great  is  the  Lord  !  just  and 
true  are  thy  ways,  thou  king  of  saints  1' 

Sometimes  the  word  all  is  emphatically  put  after  a  num- 
ber of  particulars  comprehended  under  it.  *  Ambition, 
interest,  honour,  all  concurred.'  Sometimes  a  substan- 
tive, which  likewise  comprehends  the  preceding  particu- 
lars, is  used  in  conjunction  with  this  adjective  :  as,  ^  Roy- 
alists, republicans,  churchmen,  sectaries,  courtiers,  pat- 
riots, all  fiar ties,  concurred  in  the  illusion.' 

An  adjective  pronoun,  in  the  plural  number,  will  some- 
times properly  associate  with  a  singular  noun  :  as,  *  Our 
desire,  your  intention,  their  resignation.'  This  associa- 
tion applies  rather  to  things  of  an  intellectual  nature,  than 
to  those  which  are  corporeal.  It  forms  an  exception  to 
the  general  rule. 

A  substantive  with  its  adjective  is  reckoned  as  one  com- 
pounded word,  whence  they  often  take  another  adjective, 
and  sometimes  a  third,  and  so  on  :  as,  *  An  old  man  ;  a 
good  old  man  ;  a  very  learned,  judicious,  good  old  man.' 

Though  the  adjective  always  relates  to  a  substantive,  it 
is,  in  many  instances,  put  as  if  it  were  absolute  ;  especial- 
ly where  the  noun  has  been  mentioned  before,  or  is  easily 
imderstood,  though  not  expressed  :  as,  *  I  often  survey 
the  green  fields,  as  I  am  very  fond  oi  g-reen  ;*  '  The  wise, 
the  virtuous,  the  honoured,  famed,  and  great,'  that  is, 
'  persons  ;'  '  The  twelve,'  that  is,  '  apostles  ;'  '  Have 
compassion  on  the  fiooi- ;  be  feet  to  the  lame,  and  eyes  to 
the  blind.'* 

Substantives  are  often  used  as  adjectives*  In  this  case, 
the  word  so  used  is  sometimes  unconnected  with  the  sub- 
stantive to  which  it  relates  ;  sometimes  connected  with  it 
by  a  hyphen  ;  and  sometimes  joined  to  it,  so  as  to  make 
the  two  words  coalesce.  The  total  separation  is  proper, 
when  either  of  the  two  words  is  long,  or  when  they  cannot 
be  fluently  pronounced  as  one  word  :  as,  an  adjective  pro- 
noun, a  silver  watch,  a  stone  cistern  :  the  hyphen  is  used, 
when  both  the  words  are  short,  and  are  readily  pronounc- 
ed as  a  single  word  :  as,  cole-mine,  corn-mill,  fruit-tree  : 
the  words  coalesce,  when  they  are  readily  pronounced  to- 


Rule  9.)  SYNTAX.  151 

gether  ;  have  a  long  established  association ;  and  are  in 
fre(|Uent  use  :  as,  honeycomb,  gingerbread,  inkhorn., 
Yorkshire. 

Sometimes  the  adjective  becomes  a  substantive,  and  has 
another  adjective  joined  to  it :  as,  ^  The  chief  good  i' 
♦  The  vast  immense  of  space.' 

When  an  adjective  has  a  preposition  before  it,  the  sub- 
stantive being  understood,  it  takes  the  nature  of  an  adverb, 
and  is  considered  as  an  adverb  :  as,  '  In  general,  in  par- 
ticular, in  haste,'  Sec. ;  that  is,  '  Generally,  particularly, 
hastily.* 

Enow  was  formerly  used  as  the  plural  of  enough  ;  but 
it  is  now  obsolete. 

RULE    IX. 

The  article  a  or  an  agrees  with  nouns  in  the 
singular  number  only,  individually  or  collective- 
ly :  as,  *  A  christian,  an  infidel,  a  score,  a  thou- 
sand.' 

The  definite  article  thexnscy  agree  with  nouns 
in  the  singular  and  plural  number  :  as,  '  The 
garden,  the  houses,  the  stars.' 

The  articles  are  often  properly  omitted  :  when 
used,  they  should  be  justly  applied,  according  to 
their  distinct  nature  :  as,.  '  Gold  is  corrupting  ; 
the  sea  is  green  ;  a  lion  is  bold.' 

It  is  of  the  nature  of  both  the  articles  to  determine  or 
limit  the  thing  spoken  of.  A  determines  it  to  be  one  sin- 
gle thing  of  the  kind,  leaving  it  still  uncertain  which  :  the 
determines  which  it  is,  or  of  many,  which  they  are. 

The  following  passage  will  serve  as  an  example  of  the 
different  uses  of  a  ond  the,  and  of  the  force  of  the  substan- 
tive without  any  article. .  *  Man  was  made  for  society,  and 
ought  to  extend  his  good  will  to  all  men  :  but  a  man  will 
naturally  entertain  a  more  particular  kindness  for  the  men, 
with  whom  he  has  the  most  frequent  intercourse  ;  anden- 
icr  into  a  still  closer  union  with  the  man  whose  temper  and 
^disposition  suit  best  with  his  o\m' 


X52  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  (Rulc  9« 

As  the  articles  are  sometimes  misapplied,  it  may  be  of 
some  use  to  exhibit  a  few  instances  :  *  And  I  persecuted 
this  way  unto  the  death,'  The  apostle  does  not  mean  any 
particular  sort  of  death,  but  death  in  general :  the  definite 
article  therefore  is  improperly  used  :  it  ought  to  be  *  unto 
death,'  without  any  article. 

*  When  he,  the  Spirit  of  Truth,  is  come,  he  will  guide 
you  into  all  truth  :'  that  is,  according  to  this  translationr 

*  into  all  truth  whatsoever,  into  truth  of  all  kinds  ;*  veiy 
different  from  the  meaning  of  the  evangelist,  and  from  the 
original,  '  into  all  the  truth  ;'  that  is,  *  into  all  evangelical 
truth,  all  truth  necessary  for  you  to  know.' 

*  Who  breaks  a  buttei-fly  upon  a  wheel  ?'  it  ought  to  be 

*  the  wheel,*  used  as  an  instrument  for  the  particular  pur- 
pose of  torturing  criminals.  '  The  Almighty  hath  given 
reason  to  a  man  to  be  a  light  unto  him  'J  it  should  rather 
"be,  *  to  man,*  in  general.  *  This  day  is  salvation  come  to 
this  house,  forasmuch  as  he  also  is  the  son  of  Abraham  r'' 
it  ought  to  be,  *  a  son  of  Abraham.* 

These  remarks  may  serve  to  show  the  great  importance 
of  the  proper  use  of  the  article,  and  the  excellence  of  the 
E,nglish  language  in  this  respect  ;  which,  by  means  of  its 
two  articles,  does  most  precisely  determine  the  extent  of 
signification  of  common  names. 

1 .  A  nice  distinction  of  the  sense  is  sometimes  made 
by  the  use  or  omission  of  the  article  a.  If  I  say  ;  '  He 
behaved  with  a  little  reverence  ;*  my  meaning  is  positive! 
If  I  say,  *  He  behaved  with  little  reverence  ;'  my  mean- 
ing is  negative.  And  these  two  are  by  no  means  the  same 
or  to  be  used  in  the  same  cases.  By  the  former,  I  rather 
jiraise  a  person  ;  by  the  latter,  I  dispraise  him.  For  the 
sake  of  this  distinction,  which  is  a  very  useful  one,  we 
may  better  bear  the  seeming  impropriety  of  the  article  a 
before,  nouns  of  number.  When  I  say,  *  There  were  few 
men  with  him  ;*  I  speak  diminutively,  and  mean  to  re- 
present them  as  inconsiderable  :  whereas,  when  I  say  ; 

*  There  were  a  few  men  with  him  ;*  I  evidently  intend 
to  make  the  most  of  them. 

2.  In  general,  it  may  be  sufficient  to  prefix  the  article 
to  the  former  of  two  words  in  the  same  construction  ; 
though  the  French  never  fail  to  repeat  it  iii  this  case.-««- 


Rule  10.)  SYNTAX.  153 

*  There  were  many  hours,  both  of  the  night  and  day, 
%vhich  he  could  spend,  without  suspicion,  in  solitary 
thought.'  It  might  have  been  '  of  the  night  and  of  the 
day.'  And  for  the  sake  of  emphasis,  we  often  repeat 
the  article  in  a  series  of  epithets.  '  He  hoped  that  this 
title  would  secure  him  an  ample  and  an  independent  au- 
thority.' 

3  In  common  conversation,  and  in  familiar  style,  we 
frequently  omit  the  articles,  which  m.ight  be  inserted  with 
propriety  in  writing,  especially  in  a  grave  style.  '  At 
worst,  time  might  be  gained  by  this  expedient.'  '  At  the 
worst,'  would  have  been  better  in  this  place.  '  Give  me 
here  John  Baptist's  head.*  There  would  have  been  niore 
dignity  in  saying,  '  John  the  Baptist's  head  :*  or,  *  The 
head  of  John  the  Baptist.' 

The  article  the  has  sometimes  a  good  effect  in  distin- 
guishing a  person  by  an  epithet.  *  In  the  history  of  Henry 
the  fourth,  by  Father  Daniel,  we  are  surprised  at  not  find- 
ing him  the  great  man.*  '  I  own  I  am  often  surprised 
that  he  should  have  treated  so  coldly,  a  man  so  much  ths 
gentleman.' 

This  article  is  often  elegantly  put,  after  the  manner  of 
the  French,  for  the  pronoun  possessive  :  as,  *  He  looks 
him  full  in  the  face  ;'  that  is,  '  in  his  face.*  *  In  his  pre- 
sence they  were  to  strike  the  forehead  on  the  ground ;' 
that  is,  '  their  foreheads.^ 

We  sometimes,  according  to  the  French  manner,  re- 
peat the  same  article,  when  the  adjective,  on  account  of 
any  clause  depending  upon  it,  is  put  after  the  substan- 
tive. *  Of  all  the  considerable  governments  among  the 
Alps,  a  commonwealth  is  a  constitution  the  most  adapted 
of  any  to  the  poverty  of  those  countries.*  '  With  such  a 
specious  title  as  that  of  blood,  which  with  the  multitude  is 
always  a  claim,  the  strongest,  and  the  most  easily  compre- 
hended.*    *  They  are  not  the  men  in  the  nation  the  most 

fficult  to  be  replaced.* 

RULE  X. 

One  substantive  governs  another,  signifying  a 
difterent  thing,  in  the  possessive  or  genitive  case: 


tf 


154  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  (Rulc  10. 

as,  '  My  father's  house;'  *  Man's  happiness;^ 

*  Virtue's  reward.' 

When  the  annexed  substantive  signifies  the  same  thing' 
as  the  first,  there  is  no  variation  of  case :  as,  'George, 
king  of  Great-Britain,  elector  of  Hanover,'  Sec.  '  Pompey 
contended  with  Caesar,  the  greatest  general  of  his  time  ;* 

*  Religion,  the  support  of  adversity,  adorns  prosperity.* 
Nouns  thus  circumstanced  are  said  to  be  in  apfiosition  to 
each  other.  The  interposition  of  a  relative  and  verb  will 
sometimes  break  the  construction  :  as,  *  Pompey  contend- 
ed with  Caesar,  who  was  the  greatest  general  of  his  time.* 
Here  the  word  general  is  in  the  nominative  case,  governed 
by  note  4,  under  rule  xi. 

The  preposition  of  joined  to  a  substantive,  is  frequent- 
ly equivalent  to  the  possessive  case.  But  it  is  only  so, 
when  the  expression  can  be  converted  into  the  regular 
form  of  the  possessive  case.  We  can  say,  *  The  reward 
of  virtue,*  and  *  Virtue's  reward  :*  but  though  it  is  proper 
to  say,  '  A  crown  of  gold,'  we  cannot  convert  the  expres- 
sion into  the  possessive  case,  and  say,  *  Gold's  crown.* 

Substantives  govern  pronouns  as  well  as  nouns,  in  the 
possessive  case  :  as,  '  Every  tree  is  known  by  its  fruit  i* 
'  Goodness  brings  zV«  reward;'  '  That  desk  is  mine* 

The  genitive  its  is  often  improperly  used  for  *tis  or  it  is : 
as,  '  Its  my  book  :'  instead  of  '  It  is  my  book.* 

The  pronoun  his,  when  detached  from  the  notin  to 
which  it  relates,  is  to  be  considered,  not  as  a  possessive 
pronoun,  but  as  the  genitive  case  of  the  personal  pronoun : 
as,  '  This  composition  is  his.*  *  Whose  book  is  that  ?* 
'  His.*  If  we  use  the  noim  itself,  we  should  say,  '  This 
composition  is  John's.'  <  Whose  book  is  that  ?'  *  Eliza's.' 
The  position  will  be  still  more  evident,  when  we  consider 
that  both  the  pronouns  in  the  following  sentence  musf 
have  a  similar  construction  :  '  Is  it  her  or  his  honour  that 
is  tarnished  :*  '  It  is  not  hers,  but  his.* 

Sometimes  a  substantive  in  the  genitive  or  possessive 
case  stands  alone,  the  latter  one  by  which  it  is  governed 
being  understood :  as,  *  I  called  at  the  bookseller's,'  that 
isj  *  at  the  bookseller's  shop.* 


Rule  10.)  SYNTAX^  15S 

1 .  If  several  nouns  come  together  in  the  genitive  case, 
the  apostrophe  with  s  is  annexed  to  the  last,  and  under- 
stood to  the  rest:  as,  'John  and  Eliza's  books  :*  'This 
was  my  father,  mother,  and  uncle's  advice.*  But  when 
any  words  intervene,  perhaps  on  account  of  the  increased 
pause,  the  sign  of  the  possessive  should  be  annexed  to 
•ach  :  as, '  They  are  John's  as  well  as  Eliza's  books  ;*  '  I 
had  the  physician's,  the  surgeon's,  and  the  apothecary's 
assistance.* 

2.  In  poetry,  the  additional  s  is  frequently  omitted,  but 
the  apostrophe  retained,  in  the  same  manner  as  in  sub- 
stantives of  the  plural  number  ending  in  s :  as,  '  The 
wrath  of  Peleus'  son.'  This  seems  not  so  allowable  in 
j)rose  ;  which  the  following  erroneous  examples  will  de- 
monstrate :  '  Moses' minister ;' 'Phinehas*  wife  ?'  'Festus 
came  into  Felix'  room.'  '  These  answers  were  made  to 
the  witness'  questions.'  But  in  cases  which  would  give 
too  much  of  the  hissing  sound,  or  increase  the  difficulty 
of  pronunciation,  the  omission  takes  place  even  in  prose  : 
as,  '  For  righteousness'  sake  ;'  '  For  conscience*  sake.' 

3.  Little  explanatory  circumstances  are  particularly 
awkward  between  a  genitive  case,  and  the  word  which 
usually  follows  it ;  as,  '  She  began  to  extol  the  farmer's, 
as  she  called  him,  excellent  understanding.'  It  ought  to 
be,  '  the  excellent  understanding  of  the  farmer,  as  she 
called  him.' 

4.  When  a  sentence  consists  of  terms  signifying  a  name 
and  an  office,  or  of  any  expressions  by  which  one  part  is 
descriptive  or  explanatory  of  the  other,  it  may  occasion 
some  doubt  to  which  of  them  the  sign  of  the  genitive  case 
should  be  annexed  :  or  whether  it  should  be  subjoined  to 
them  both.  Thus,  some  would  say  ;  '  I  left  the  parcel  at 
Smith's  the  bookseller  ;'  others,  '  at  Smith  the  booksel* 
ler's  ;'  and  perhaps  others,  '  at  Smith's  the  bookseller's.* 
The  first  of  these  forms  is  most  agreeable  to  the  English 
idiom  ;  and  if  the  addition  consists  of  two  or  more  words, 
the  case  seems  to  be  less  dubious  ;  as,  '  I  left  the  parcel 
at  Smith's,  the  bookseller  and  stationer.'  But  as  this  sub- 
ject requires  a  little  further  explanation  to  make  \t  intelli- 
gible to  the  learners,  we  shall  add  a  few  observations  tend- 
ing to  wnfokl  its  principles. 


156  ENGLISH    GRAMMAUr  (Rule  iO. 

A  phrase  in  which  the  words  are  so  Connected  and  de- 
pendent, as  to  admit  of  no  pause  before  the  conclusion, 
necessarily  requires  the  genitive  sign  at  or  near  the  end 
of  the  phrase  :  as,  <  Whose  prerogative  is  it  ?  It  is  the 
king  of  Great  Britain's  ;*  *  That  is  the  duke  of  Bridge- 
water's  canal  ;*  '  The  bishop  of  Landaff*s  excellent  book  ;* 

*  The  Lord  mayor  of  London's  authority  ;*  *  The  captain 
of  the  guard's  house.* 

When  words  in  apposition  follow  each  other  in  quick 
succession,  it  seems  also  most  agreeable  to  our  idiom,  to 
give  the  sign  of  the  genitive  a  similar  situation  ;  especial- 
ly if  the  noun  which  governs  the  genitive  be  expressed : 
as,  *  The  emperor  Leopold's  ;'  '  Dionysius  the  tyrant's  j' 

*  For  David  my  servant*^  sake  ;'  '  Give  me  John  the  Ba^i- 
tiftt^s  head  ;*  *  Paul  the  afioatle^s  advice.'  But  when  a 
pause  is  proper,  and  the  governing  noun  not  expressed ; 
and  when  the  latter  part  of  the  sentence  is  extended  ;  it 
appears  to  be  requisite  that  the  sign  should  be  applied  to 
the  first  genitive,  and  understood  to  the  other :  as,  *  I 
reside  at  lord  Stormont's,  my  old  patron  and  benefactor  ;' 
<  Whose  glory  did  he  emulate  ?  He  emulated  Caesar's, 
the  greatest  general  of  antiquity.'  In  the  following  sen- 
tences, it  would  be  very  awkward  to  place  the  sign,  either 
at  the  end  of  each  of  the  clauses,  or  at  the  end  of  the  lat- 
ter one  alone  :  '  These  psalms  are  David's,  the  king, 
priest,  and  prophet  of  the  Jewish  people  ;*  '  We  st^d  a 
month  at  lord  Lyttleton's,  the  ornament  of  his  country, 
and  the  friend  of  every  virtue.'  The  sign  of  the  genitive 
■case  may  very  properly  be  understood  at  the  end  of  these 
members,  an  ellipsis  at  the  latter  part  of  sentences  being 
a  common  construction  in  our  language  ;  as  the  learner 
will  see  by  one  or  two  examples :  '  They  wished  to  sub- 
mit, but  he  did  not  ;*  that  is,  '  he  did  not  wish  to  submit  ;* 

*  He  said  it  was  their  concern,  but  not  his  ;'  that  is,  '  not 
his  concern* 

If  we  annex  the  sign  of  the  genitive  to  the  end  of  the 
last  clause  only,  we  shall  perceive  that  a  resting  place  is 
wanted,  and  that  the  connecting  circumstance  is  placed 
too  remotely,  to  be  either  perspicuous  or  agreeable  :  as, 
'  Whose  glory  did  he  emulate  ?'  *  He  emulated  Csesar, 
the  greatest  general  of  untiquitifs  ,-*    '  These  psalms  are 


JRule  10.)  SYNTAX.  157 

David,  the  king,  priest,  and  prophet  of  the  Jewish  iie&- 
filers.*  It  is  much  better  to  say,  '  This  is  Paul's  advice^ 
the  christian  hero,  and  great  apostle  of  the  Gentiles,'  thah 

*  This  is  Paul  the  christian  hero,  and  great  apostle  of  the 
Gentiles'  advice.'  On  the  other  hand,  the  application  of 
the  genitive  sign  to  both  or  all  of  the  nouns  in  apposition, 
would  be  generally  harsh  and  displeasing,  and  perhaps  in 
some  cases  incorrect :  as,  '  The  emperor's  Leopold's ;' 

*  King's  George's  :'  *  Charles's  the  second's.'  *  The  par- 
cel was  left  at  Smith's,  the  bookseller's  and  stationer's.' 
The  rules  which  we  have  endeavoured  to  elucidate,  will 
prevent  the  inconvenience  of  both  these  modes  of  expres- 
sion ;  and  they  appear  to  be  simple,  perspicuous,  and  con- 
sistent with  the  idiom  of  the  language. 

5.  The  English  genitive  has  often  an  unpleasant  sound  ; 
so  that  we  daily  make  more  use  of  the  particle  0/  to  ex- 
press the  same  relation.  There  is  something  awkward  in 
the  following  sentences,  in  which  this  method  has  not 
been  taken.  *  The  general,  in  the  army's  name,  publish- 
ed a  declaration.'  '  The  common's  vote.'  *  The  Lord's 
house.*  *  Unless  he  is  very  ignorant  of  the  kingdom's 
condition  '  It  were  certainly  better  to  say,  *  In  the  name 
of  the  army  ;'  '  The  votes  of  the  commons  ;'  '  The  house 
of  lords  ;'  *  The  condition  of  the  kingdom.'  It  is  also 
rather  harsh  to  use  two  English  genitives  with  the  same 
substantive  ;  as,  '  Whom  he  acquainted  with  the  pope's 
and  the  king's  pleasure.'  '  The  pleasure  of  the  pope  and 
the  king,'  would  have  been  better. 

We  sometimes  meet  with  three  substantives  dependent 
on  one  another,  and  connected  by  the  preposition  of  ap- 
plied to  each  of  them  :  as,  '  The  severity  of  the  distress 
of  the  son  of  the  king,  touched  the  nation  ;'  but  this  mode 
of  expression  is  not  to  be  recommended.  It  would  be 
better  to  say,  *  The  severe  distress  of  the  king's  son, 
touched  the  nation.'  We  have  a  striking  instance  of  this 
laborious  mode  of  expression,  in  the  follov/ing  sentence  : 
'  Of  some  of  the  books  of  each  0/ these  classes  of  litera- 
ture, a  catalogue  will  be  given  at  the  end  of  the  work,* 

6.  In  some  cases,  we  use  both  the  genitive  ternunatioa 
and  the  preposition  of;  as,  *  It  is  a  discovery  of  Sir  Isaac 
Nevv'ton's.'  Sometimes  indeed,  unless  we  throw  the  sea- 
O 


158  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  (Rulc  10, 

tence  into  another  form,  this  method  is  absolutely  neces- 
saiy,  in  order  to  distinguish  the  sense,  and  to  give  the 
idea  of  property,  strictly  so  called,  which  is  the  most  im- 
portant of  ihe  relations  expressed  by  the  genitive  case  : 
for  the  expressions,  '  This  picture  of  my  friend,*  and 
*  This  picture  of  my  friend*s,'  suggest  very  different 
ideas.  The  latter  only  is  that  of  property  in  the  strictest 
sense.  The  idea  would,  doubtless,  be  conveyed  in  a  bet- 
ter manner,  by  saying,  *  This  picture  belonging  to  my 
fi'iencl.* 

When  this  double  genitive,  as  some  grammarians  term 
it,  is  not  necessary  to  disthiguish  the  sense,  and  especially 
in  a  grave  style,  it  is  generally  omitted.  Except  to  pre- 
vent ambiguity,  it  seems  to  be  allowable  only  in  cases 
which  suppose  the  existence  of  a  plurality  of  subjects  of 
the  same  kind.  In  the  expressions,  ^  A  subject  of  the 
emperor's  ;'  '  A  sentiment  of  my  brother's  ;'  more  than 
one  subject,  and  one  sentiment,  are  supposed  to  belong  to 
the  possessor.  But  when  this  plurality  is  neither  intimat- 
ed, nor  necessarily  supposed,  the  double  genitive,  except 
^s  before  mentioned?  should  not  be  used  :  as,  *  This 
house  of  the  governor  is  very  commodious  :,'  '  The  crown 
of  the  king  was  stolen  ;'  *  That  privilege  of  the  scholar 
was  never  abused.'  (See  page  49.)  But  after  all  that  can 
be  said  for  this  double  genitive,  as  it  is  termed,  some 
grammarians  think  that  it  would  be  better  to  avoid  the 
use  of  it  altogether,  and  to  give  the  sentiment  another 
form  of  expression. 

7.  When  an  entire  clause  of  a  sentence,  beginning  with 
-a  participle  of  the  present  tense,  is  used  as  one  name,  or 
to  express  one  idea  or  circumstance,  the  noun  on  which  it 
depends  may  be  put  in  the  genitive  case  ;  thus,  instead  of 
saying,  '  What  is  the  reason  of  this  person  dismissing  his 
servant  so  hastily  ?'  that  is,  *  What  is  the  reason  of  this 
person  in  dismissing  his  servant  so  hastily  ?'  we  may  say, 
and  perhaps  ought  to  say,  '  What  is  the  reason  of  this 
person's  dismissing  of  his  servant  so  hastily  ?'  Just  as  we 
say,  '  What  is  the  reason  of  this  person's  hasty  dismission 
•of  his  servant  ?'  So  also,  we  say,  '  I  remember  it  being 
recl\oned  a  great  exploit  ;'  or  more  properly,  *  1  remem- 
ifeer  its  being  reckoned,'  &c.     The  following  sentence  is 


Rule  11.)  SYNTAX.  159 

«orrect  and  proper :  *  Much  will  depend  on  the  fiufiil^s 
eomfiosing,  but  more  on  his  reading  frequently.*  It  would 
not  be  accurate  to  say,  '  Much  will  depend  on  the  pufiii 
cemfiosingy  Sec.  We  also  properly  say  ;  '  This  will  be  the 
%^QQ,X.of  the  fiufiifs  composing  iveqii^nlly  ',*  instead  of,  '  0/ 
the  fiiipil  composing  frequently.* 

RULE    XI. 

Active  verbs  govern  the  objective  case  ;  as, 
'  Truth  ennobles   her  ;'    '  She  comforts  me  .•' 

*  They  support  us  ;'  '  Virtue  rewards  her  fol- 
lowers. ' 

In  English,  the  nominative  case,  denoting  the  subject, 
usually  goes  before  the  verb  ;  and  the  objective  case,  de- 
noting the  object,  follows  the  verb  active  ;  and  it  is  the 
order  that  determines  the  case  in  nouns  ;  as,  '  Alexander 
conquered  the  Persians.*  But  the  pronoun  having  a  pro- 
per form  for  each  of  those  cases,  is  sometimes,  when  it 
is  in  the  objective  case,  placed  before  the  verb  ;  and, 
when  it  is  in  the  nominative  case,  follows  the  object  and 
verb ;  as,  *  Whom  ye  ignorantly  worship,  him  declare  I 
unto  you.* 

This  position  of  the  pronovm  sometimes  occasions  its 
proper  case  and  government  to  be  neglected  :  as  in  the 
following  instances  :  *  Who  should  I  esteem  more  than 
the  wise  and  good  ?*  '  By  the  character  of  those  who  you 
choose  for  your  friends,  your  o^vn  is  likely  to  be  formed.* 

*  Those  are  the  persons  who  he  thought  true  to  his  inter- 
ests.* '  Who  should  I  see  the  other  day  but  my  old 
friend  ?*  '  Whosoever  the  court  favours.*  In  all  these 
places  it  ought  to  be  nvhom^  the  relative  being  governed 
in  the  objective  case  by  the  verbs  '  esteem,  choose, 
thought,'  8cc.  '  He,  who  under  all  proper  circumstances, 
has  the  boldness  to  speak  truth,  choose  for  thy  friend  :* 
It  should  be  *  him  who,*  Sec. 

Verbs  neuter  do  not  act  upon,  or  govern,  nouns  and 
pronouns.  '  He  sleeps ;  they  muse,'  8cc.  are  not  transi- 
tive. They  are,  therefore,  not  followed  by  an  objective 
ease,  specifying  the  object  of  an  action.  But  when  this 
case,  or  an  object  of  action,  comes  after  such  verbs,  though 


160  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  (Ruie  IL 

it  may  carry  the  appearance  of  being  governed  by  them?  it 
is  generally  aflectecl  by  a  preposition  or  some  other  word 
understocd  :  as,  '  He  resided  many  years  [that  is,  for  of 
during  many  years]  in  that  street }'  '  He  rode  several  miles 
[that  is,  yc'7'  or  through  the  space  of  several  milesj  on 
that  day  ;*  *  He  lay  an  hour  [that  is,  during  an  hour]  in 
great  torture.'  In  the  phrases,  *  To  dream  a  dream,* 
*  To  live  a  virtuous  life,'  *  To  rim  a  race,'  '  To  ^yalk  the 
liorse,*  *  To  dance  the  child,'  the  verbs  certainly  assume 
a  transiiive  form,  and  may  not,  in  these  cases,  be  impro- 
perly denominated  transitive  verbs. 

1 .  Some  writers,  however,  use  certain  neuter  verbs  as 
if  they  were  transitive,  putting  after  them  the  objective 
case,  agreeably  to  the  French  construction  of  reciprocal 
verbs  ;  but  this  custom  is  so  foreign  to  the  idiom  of  the 
English  tongue,  tiiat  it  ought  not  to  be  adopted  or  imitat- 
ed. The  following  are  some  instances  of  this  practice.... 
f  Reficnting  him  of  his  design.'  *  The  king  soon  found 
reason  to  rejient  him  of  his  provoldng  such  dangerous  en- 
emies.' ^  The  popular  lords  did  not  fail  to  enlarge  them- 
s^elves  on  the  subject.'  *  The  nearer  his  successes  apftroach* 
ed  him  to  the  throne.'  '  ijofice  thee  away  into  the  land 
of  Judah.'  *  I  think  it  by  no  means  a  lit  and  decent  thing 
to  vie  charities,'  h.z.  '  They  have  spent  their  whole 
time  and  pains  to  agree  the  sacred  with  the  profane  chro- 
nology,' 

2.  Active  verbs  are  sometimes  as  improperly  made 
neuter  ;  as,  '  I  must  premise  with  three  circumstances.* 
'  Those  that  think  to  ingratiate  ivith  him  by  calumni- 
ating me.' 

3.  The  neuter  verb  is  varied  like  the  active  ;  but,  hav- 
ing in  some  degree  the  nature  of  the  passive,  it  admits,  in 
many  ipstances,  of  the  passive  form,  retaining  still  the 
neuter  signification,  chiefly  in  such  verbs  as  signify  some 
sort  of  motion  or  change  of  place  or  condition  :  as,  *  I  am 
come  ;  I  was  gone ;  I  am  grown ;  I  was  fallen.'  The 
following  examples,  however,  appear  to  be  erroneous,  in 
giving  the  neuter  verbs  a  passive  form,  instead  of  an  ac- 
tive one.  *  The  rule  of  our  holy  religion,  from  which  we 
are  infinitely  siverved.*  *  The  whole  obligation  of  that 
law  and  covenant  was  also  ceased,*    <  Whose  number  wa^ 


Rule  11.)  SYNTAX.  161 

now  amounted  to  three  hundred.*  '  This  mareschal,  upon 
some  discontent,  nvas  entered  into  a  conspiracy  against  his 
master.'  *  At  the  end  of  a  campaign,  when  half  the  men 
are  deserted  or  killed.*  They  should  be,  *  have  swerved, 
had  ceased,'  &c. 

4.  The  verb  to  be,  through  all  its  variations,  has  the 
same  case  after  it,  as  that  which  next  precedes  it :  '  /  am 
he  whom  they  invited  ;*  '  It  may  be  (or  might  have  been) 
he,  but  it  cannot  be  (or  could  not  have  been)  I;*  *  It  is 
impossible  to  be  they  /'  *  It  seems  to  have  been  he,  who 
conducted  himself  so  wisely  ;'  '  It  appeared  to  be  she  that 
transacted  the  business  ;*  *  I  understood  it  to  be  him  ;'  *  I 
believe  it  to  have  been  thein  ;*  '  We  at  first  took  it  to  be 
her  ;  but  were  afterwards  convinced  that  it  was  not  she* 

*  He  is  not  the  person  who  it  seemed  he  was.*  *  He  is 
really  the  person  who  he  appeared  to  be.*  '  She  is  not 
now  the  woman  tvhom  they  represented  her  to  have  been.' 

*  Whom  do  you  fancy  Mm  to  be?*  By  these  examples,  it 
appears  that  this  substantive  verb  has  no  government  of 
case,  but  serves,  in  all  its  forms,  as  a  conductor  to  the 
cases ;  so  that  the  two  cases  which,  in  the  construction  of 
the  sentence,  are  the  next  before  and  after  it,  must  always 
be  alike.  Perhaps  this  subject  will  be  more  intelligible 
to  the  learner,  by  observing,  that  the  words  in  the  cases 
preceding  and  following  the  verb  to  be,  may  be  said  to  be 
in  ajifiosition  to  each  other.  Thus,  in  the  sentence,  *  I  un- 
derstood it  to  be  him,*  the  words  it  and  him  are  in  appo- 
sition ;  that  is,  <  they  refer  to  the  same  thing,  and  arc  in 
the  same  case.* 

The  following  sentences  contain  devotions  from  the 
rule,  and  exhibit  the  pronoun  in  a  wrong  case  :  *  It  might 
have  been  him,  but  there  is  no  proof  of  it  ;*  *  Thou;^h  I 
was  blamed,  it  could  not  have  been  me  /  *  I  saw  one 
whom  I  took  to  be  she ;'  *  She  is  the  person  %vho  I  under- 
stood it  to  have  been  ;*  '•  Who  do  you  think  me  to  be  ?' 
'  Whom  do  men  say  that  I  am  ?'  '  And  whom  think  ye  tliat 
lam?* 

Passive  verbs  which  signify  naming,  Sec.  have  the  same 

case  before  and  after  them  :  as,  *  He  was  called  Cicsar ;, 

She  was  named  Penelope  ;  Homer  is  styled  the  prince  of 

poetsi  James  was  created  a  duke :  The  general  was  sa- 

02 


162  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR^  (Rulc  12. 

luted  emperor ;  The  professor  was  appointed  tutor  to  the 
prince.'* 

5.  The  auxiliary  let  governs  the  objective  case:  as, 

*  Let  him  beware  ;*  *  Let  us  judge  candidly  ;'  '  Let  them 
not  presume  ;*  *  Let  George  study  his  lesson.* 

RULE    XII. 

One  verb  governs  another  that  follows  it.,  or 
depends  upon   it,  in  the   infinitive   mood :  as, 

*  Cease  to  do  evil;  learn  to  do  well;'  'We 
should  be  prepared  to  render  an  account  of  our 
actions.' 

The  preposition  to^  though  generally  used  be- 
fore the  latter  verb,  is  sometimes  properly  omit- 
ted :  as,  *  I  heard  him  say  it ; '  instead  of  '  to 
say  it.' 

The  verbs  which  have  commonly  other  verbs  following 
them  in  the  infinitive  mood,  without  the  sign  ro,  are  Bid, 
dare,  need,  make,  see,  hear,  feel ;  and  also,  let,  not  used 
as  an  auxiliary  ;  and  perhaps  a  few  others  :  as,  '  I  bade 
him  do  it  ;*  *  Ye  dare  not  do  it ;'  'I  saw  him  do  it;'  '  I 
heard  him  say  it :'  '  Thou  lettest  him  go.' 

1.  In  the  following  passages,  the  word  to,  the  sign  of 
the  infinitive  mood»  where  it  is  distinguished  by  Italic 
characters,  is  superflueus  and  improper.  ^  I  have  observ- 
ed some  satirists  to  use,'  £cc.  '  To  see  so  many  to  make 
so  little  conscience  of  so  great  a  sin.'  <  It  cannot  but  be 
a  delightful  spectacle  to  God  and  angels,  to  see  a  young 
person,  besieged  by  powerful  temptations  on  every  side, 
to  acquit  himself  gloriously,  and  resolutely  to  hold  out 
against  the  most  violent  assaults ;  to  behold  one  in  the 
prime  and  flower  of  his  age,  that  is  courted  by  pleasures 
and  honours,  by  the  devil,  and  all  the  bewitching  vanities 
of  the  world,  to  reject  all  these,  and  to  cleave  steadfastly 
unto  God.' 

This  mood  has  also  been  improperly  used,  in  the  fol* 
lowing  places :  <  I  am  not  like  other  men,  to  envy  the  tal- 
ents I  cannot  reach.'    '  Grammarians  have  denied,  or  at) 

•  See  English  Es;ercises,  11th  edit.  p.  ^3^    The  ?N'otc. 


Rule  13.)  SYi^TAx;  16S 

least  doubted  them  to  be  genuine.'  '  That  all  our  doing* 
may  be  ordered  by  thy  governance,  to  do  always  what  i% 
righteous  in  thy  sight.* 

The  infinitive  is  frequently  governed  by  adjectives,  sub- 
stantives, and  participles :  as, '  He  is  eager  to  learn  ;*  *  She 
is  worthy  to  be  loved ;'  '  They  have  a  desire  to  improve  ;' 
^Endeavouring  to  persuade,' 

The  infinitive  mood  has  much  of  the  nature  of  a  sub- 
stantive, expressing  the  action  itself  which  the  verb  sig- 
nifies, as  the  participle  has  the  nature  of  an  adjective. 
Thus  the  infinitive  mood  does  the  office  of  a  substantive  in 
different  cases  :  in  the  nominative  ;  as,  '  To  t^lay  is  pleas- 
ant :'  in  the  objective  :  as,  *  Boys  love  to  filay  :*  '  For  t9 
ivill  is  present  with  me  ;  but  to  fierform  that  which  is 
good,  I  find  not.* 

The  infinitive  mood  is  often  made  absolute,  or  used  in* 
dependently  on  the  rest  of  the  sentence,  supplying  the 
place  of  the  conjunction  that  with  the  potential  mood :  as, 
'  To  confess  the  truth,  I  was  in  fault  ;*  *  To  begin  with 
the  first ;'  '  To  proceed  j'  '  To  conclude  ;*  that  is,  '  That 
I  may  confess,*  Sec. 

RULE  xiir. 

In  the  use  of  words  and  phrases  which,  in 
point  of  time,  relate  to  each  other,  a  due  regard 
to  that  relation  should  be  observed.  Instead  of 
saying,  *  The  Lord  hath  given,  and  the  Lord 
hath  taken  away  ;'  we  should  say,  '  The  Lord 
gave,  and  the  Lord  hath  taken  away.'  Instead 
of,  '  I  remember  the  fomily  more  than  t^v  enty 
years  ;  it  should  be,  '  I  have  remembered  the 
family  more  than  twenty  years.' 

It  is  not  easy  to  give  particular  rules  for  the  manage- 
ment of  the  moods  and  tenses  of  verbs  with  respect  to  one 
another,  so  that  they  may  be  proper  and  consistent.  The 
best  rule  that  can  be  given,  is  this  very  general  one,  *  To 
observe  what  tlie  sense  necessarily  requires.'  It  may, 
however,  be  of  use  to  give  a  few  examples  of  irregular 
construction.     *  The  last  week  I  intended  to  have  ivritteriy 


l64  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  (Rule  13. 

is  a  very  common  phrase  ;  the  infinitive  being  in  the  past 
time,  as  well  as  the  verb  which  it  follows.     But  it  is  cer- 
tainly  wrong  ;    for  how   long  soever   it  now  is  since  I 
thought  of  writing,  '  to  write'  was  then  present  to  me, 
and  must  still  be  considered  as  present,  when  I  bring  back 
that  time,  and  the  thoughts  of  it.     It  ought,  therefore,  to 
be,  *  The  last  week  I  intended  to  write.*     The  following 
sentences  are  also  erroneous  :  '  I  cannot  excuse  the  re- 
missness of  tliose  whose  business  it  should  have  been,  as 
it  certainly  was  their  interest,  to  have  interposed  their  good 
offices.*     '  There  were  two  circumstances  which  made  it 
necessary  for  them  to  have  lost  no  time.'     '  History  pain- 
ters would  have  found  it  difficult  to  have  invented  such  a 
species  of  beings.'     They  ought  to  be,   '  to  interfiose,  to 
lose,  to   invent.*     '  On   the  morrow,    because  he   should 
have  known   the  certainty,  wherefore  he  was  accused  of 
the  Jews,   he  loosed  him.*     It  ought  to  be,  '  because  he 
mould  knozvy*  or  rather,  ^  being  nvilling  to  know*     *'The 
blind  man  said  unto  him.  Lord  that  I   might   receive  my 
sight.'     '  If  by  any  means  I   might  attain  unto  the  resur- 
rection of  the  dead  ;'    '  may,*    in  both  places,  would  have 
been  better.     '  From  his  biblical  knowledge,  he  appears 
to  study  the  Scriptures  with  great  attention  ;*  *  to  have 
studied,*  &c.  *  I  feared  that  I  should  have  lost  it,  before  I 
arrived  at  the  city  ;'  '  should  lose  it.^     '  I  had  rather  walk   * 
It  should  be,  *  I  would  rather  walk.*     *  It  would  have  af- 
forded me  no  satisfaction,  if  I  could  perform  it .'  it  should 
be,  '  if  I  could  have   performed  it :'  or,  '  It  would  afford 
me  no  satisfaction,  if  I  could  fierform,  it.' 

To  preserve  consistency  in  the  time  of  verbs,  we  must 
recollect  that,  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  the  present  and 
imperfect  tenses  often  carry  with  them  a  future  sense  ; 
and  that  the  auxiliaries  should  and  would,  in  the  imperfect 
liniesj  are  used  to  express  the  present  and  future  as  well 
as  the  past  :  for  which  see  page  75. 

1.  It  is  proper  further  to  observe,  that  verbs  of  the  in- 
finitive mood  in  the  following  form  ;  '  to  write,'  *  to  be 
Avritnig,'  and  *  to  be  written,'  always  denote  something 
contemjiorary  with  the  time  of  the  governing  verb,  or  sub- 
sequent to  it :  but  when  verbs  of  that  mood  are  expressed 
as  follows  ;  *  To  have  been  writing,'  <  to  liave  written/ 


Riile  13.)  SYNTAX.  165 

and  *  to  have  been  written,'  they  always  denote  some- 
thing antecedent  to  the  time  of  the  governing  verb.  This 
remark  is  thought  to  be  of  importance  ;  for  if  duly  at- 
tended to,  it  will,  in  most  cases,  be  sufficient  to  direct  us 
in  the  relative  application  of  these  tenses. 

The  following  sentence  is  properly  and  analogically  ex- 
pressed :  '  I  found  him  better  than  I  expected  to  find 
him.'  *  Expected  to  have  found  him,'  is  irreconcilable 
alike  to  grammar  and  to  sense.  Indeed,  all  verbs  ex- 
pressive of  hope,  desire,  intention,  or  command,  must  in- 
variably be  followed  by  the  present,  and  not  the  perfect 
of  the  infinitive.  Every  person  would  perceive  an  error 
in  this  expression  ;  *  It  is  long  since  I  commanded  hiiTL 
to  Iiave  done  it :'  Yet  *  expected  to  have  found.,*  is  no 
better.  It  is  as  clear  that  the  finding  must  be  posterior 
to  the  expectation,  as  that  the  obedience  must  be  posterior 
to  the  command. 

In  the  sentence  which  follows,  the  verb  is  with  proprie- 
ty put  in  the  perfect  tense  of  the  infinitive  mood  ;  *  It 
would  have  alTorded  me  great  pleasure,  as  often  as  I  re** 
fleeted  upon  it,  to  have  been  the  messenger  of  such  intelli- 
gence.* As  the  message,  in  this  instance,  was  antece- 
dent to  the  pleasure,  and  not  contemporary  with  it,  the 
verb  expres>iive  of  the  message  must  denote  that  antece- 
dence, by  being  in  the  perfect  of  the  infinitive.  If  the 
message  and  the  pleasure  had  been  referred  to  as  contem- 
porary, the  subsequent  verb  would,  with  equal  propriety, 
have  been  put  in  the  present  of  the  infinitive  :  as,  '  It 
would  have  aiforded  me  great  pleasure,  to  he  the  mes- 
senger of  such  intelligence.*  In  the  former  instance,  the 
phrase  in  question  is  equivalent  to  these  words  ;  *  If  I  had 
been  the  messenger  ;'  in  the  latter  instance,  to  this  exr 
pression  ;  '  Being  the  messenger.' — For  a  further  discus- 
sion of  this  subject,  see  the  Tenth  edition  oi  the  Key  to 
the  Exercises,  rule  xiii.     The  Note. 

It  is  proper  to  inform  the  learner,  thut,  in  order  to  ex- 
press the  past  time  with  the  defective  verb  ought.,  the 
perfect  of  the  infinitive  must  always  be  used  ;  as,  '  He 
ought  to  have  done  it.'  When  we  use  this  verb,  this  is 
the  only  possible  way  to  distinguish  the  past  from  the 
present. 


166  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR*  (Rulc  13. 

In  support  of  the  positions  advanced  under  this  I'ule, 
we  can  produce  the  sentiments  of  eminent  grammarians  ; 
amongst  whom  are  Lowth  and  Campbell.  But  there  are 
some  writers  on  grammar,  who  strenuously  maintain,  that 
the  governed  verb  in  the  infinitive  ought  to  be  in  the  past 
tense,  when  the  verb  which  governs  it,  is  in  the  past  time. 
Though  this  cannot  be  admitted,  in  the  instances  which 
are  controverted  under  this  rule,  or  in  any  instances  of  a 
similar  nature,  yet  there  can  be  no  doubt  that,  in  many 
cases,  in  which  the  thing  referred  to  preceded  the 
governing  verb,  it  would  be  proper  and  allowable.  We 
may  say  ;  ^  From  a  conversation  I  once  had  with  him,  he 
afifieared  to  have  studied  Homer  with  great  care  and  judg- 
ment.' It  would  be  proper  also  to  say,  *  From  his  con- 
versation, he  appears  to  have  studied  Homer  with  great 
care  and  judgment  ;*  *  That  unhappy  man  is  supposed  to 
have  died  by  violence.*  These  examples  are  not  only 
consistent  with  our  rule,  but  they  confirm  and  illustrate  it. 
It  is  the  tense  of  the  governing  verb  only,  that  marks 
"what  is  called  th.e  absolute  time  ;  the  tense  of  the  verh 
governed,  marks  solely  its  relative  time  v/ith  respect  to 
the  other. 

To  assert,  as  some  writers  do,  that  verbs  in  the  infini- 
tive mood  have  no  tenses,  no  relative  distinctions  of  pre- 
sent, past,  and  future,  is  inconsistent  with  just  gramma-* 
tical  views  of  the  subject.  That  these  verbs  associate 
with  verbs  in  all  the  tenses,  is  no  proof  of  their  having  no 
peculiar  time  of  their  own.  Whatever  period  the  gov- 
erning verb  assumes,  whether  present,  past,  or  future, 
the  governed  verb  in  the  infinitive  always  respects  that 
period,  and  its  time  is  calculated  from  it.  Thus,  the 
time  of  the  infinitive  may  be  before,  after,  or  the  same 
as,  the  time  of  the  governing  verb,  according  as  the  thing 
signified  by  the  infinitive  is  supposed  to  be  before,  after, 
or  present  with,  th«  thing  denoted  by  the  governing  verb. 
It  is,  therefore,  with  great  propriety,  that  tenses  are  as- 
signed to  verbs  of  the  infinitive  mood.  The  point  of  time 
from  which  they  are  computed,  is  of  no  consequence  5 
since  present,  past,  and  future,  are  completely  applicable 
to  them. 


^  ^,  ^^ 


/ 


Rule  14.)  SYNTAX.  167 

We  shall  conclude  our  observations  under  this  rule,  by 
remarkhig,  that  though  it  is  often  proper  to  use  the  per- 
fect of  the  infinitive  after  the  governing  verb,  yet  there 
are  particular  cases,  in  which  it  would  be  better  to  give 
the  expression  a  different  form.  Thus,  instead  of  say- 
ing, *  I  wish  to  have  written  to  him  sooner,*  *  I  then 
wished  to  have  written  to  him  sooner  ,*  *  He  will  one  day 
wish  to  have  written  sooner  ;*  it  would  be  more  perspicu- 
ous and  forcible,  as  well  as  more  agreeable  to  the  practice 
of  good  writers,  to  say  ;  *  I  wish  that  I  had  written  to  him 
sooner,*  *  I  then  wished  that  I  had  written  to  him  sooner.* 
*  He  will  one  day  wish  that  he  had  written  sooner.* 
Should  the  justness  of  these  strictures  be  admitted,  there 
would  still  be  numerous  occasions  for  the  use  of  the  past 
infinitive  ,  as  we  may  perceive  by  a  few  examples.  *  It 
would  ever  afterwards  have  been  a  source  of  pleasure,  to 
have  found  him  wise  and  virtuous.*  '  To  have  deferred 
his  repentance  longer,  would  have  disqualified  him  for  re- 
penting at  all.*  *  They  will  then  see,  that  to  have  faith- 
fully performed  their  duty,  would  have  been  their  great- 
est consolation.'* 

RULE    XIV. 

Participles  have  the  same  government  as  the 
verbs  from  which  they  arc  derived  :  as,  *  I 
am  weary  with  hearing  him  ;'  *  She  is  instruct- 
ing us  ;^  '  The  tutor  is  admonishing  Charles,'*^ 

I .  Participles  are  sometimes  governed  by  the  article  : 
for  the  present  participle,  with  the  definite  article  the  be- 
fore  it,  becomes  a  substantive,  and  must  have  the  prepo- 
sition of  after  it :  as,  '  These  are  the  rules  of  grammar, 
by  the  observing  of  which  you  may  avoid  mjistakes.*  It 
would  not  be  proper  to  say,  *  by  the  observing  which  j* 
nor,  '  by  observing  of  which  ;'  but  the  phrase,  without 
either  article  or  preposition,  would  be  right :  as,  *  by  ob- 
serving which.'  The  article  a  or  an,  has  the  same  effect  i 
'as,  '  This  was  a  betraying  of  the  trust  reposed  in  him.* 

*  See  Key  to  the  English  Exercises,  Tenth  Edit.  Rule  xiii," 
The  Note. 

See  '  Eng^lish  Exercise^,.'    Eleventh  Edit.  p.  Sr. 

\      . 


168  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  (Rulc  14* 

This  rule  arises  from  the  nature  and  idiom  of  our  lan^ 
guage,  and  from  as  plain  a  principle  as  any  on  which  it 
is  founded ;  namely,  that  a  word  which  has  the  article 
before  it,  and  the  possessive  preposition  of  after  it,  must 
be  a  noun  :  and  if  a  noun,  it  ought  to  follow  the  construc- 
tion of  a  noun,  and  not  to  have  the  regimen  of  a  verb. 
It  is  the  participial  termination  of  this  sort  of  words  that 
is  apt  to  deceive  us,  and  make  us  treat  them  as  if  they 
were  of  an  amphibious  species,  partly  nouns  and  partly 
verbs. 

The  following  are  a  few  examples  of  the  violation  of 
this  rule.  *  He  was  sent  to  prepare  the  way  by  preaching 
of  repentance  ;'  it  ought  to  be,  *  by  the  preaching  of  re- 
pentance ;*  or,  *  by  preaching  repentance.'  *  By  the  con- 
tinual mortifying  our  corrupt  affections  ;'  it  should  be, 
*  by  the  continual  mortifying  o/,*  or,  <  by  continually  mor- 
tifying our  corrupt  afflections.*  *  They  laid  out  them- 
selves towards  the  advancing  and  promoting  the  good  of 
it  ;*  *  towards  advancing  and  promoting  the  good.*  ^  It  is 
an  overvaluing  ourselves,  to  reduce  every  thing  to  the 
narrow  measure  of  our  capacities  ;'  '  it  is  overvaluing  our- 
selves ;'  or,  ^  cw  overvaluing  0/ ourselves.*  *  Keeping  of 
one  day  in  seven,'  Sec.  it  ought  to  be,  '  the  keeping  o/ohq 
day  ;'  or,  *  keeping  one  day.' 

A  phrase  in  which  the  article  precedes  the  present  par- 
ticiple and  the  possessive  preposition  follows  it,  will  not, 
in  every  instance,  convey  the  same  meaning,  as  would  be 
conveyed  by  the  participle  without  the  article  and  prepo- 
sition. '  He  expressed  the  pleasure  he  had  in  the  hear- 
ing of  the  philosopher,'  is  capable  of  a  diff'erent  sense 
from,  ^  He  expressed  the  pleasure  he  had  in  hearing  the 
philosopher.'  When,  therefore,  we  wish,  for  the  sake  of^ 
harmony  or  variety,  to  substitute  one  of  these  phraseolo- 
gies for  the  other,  we  should  previously  consider  whether 
they  are  perfectly  similar  in  the  sentimeRts  they  convey. 

2.  The  same  observations  which  have  been  made  re-i 
specting  the  effect  of  the  article  and  pLirticiple,  appear  to 
be  applicable  to  the  pronoun  and  participle,  when  they  are 
similarly  associated  :  as,  '  Much  depends  on  their  odserx'-: 
i^^S  q/'the  rule,  and  error  will  be  the  consequence  oi  their' 
7iegkctin^  of  it^  instead  of  ^  their  observing  the  rule,  and 


Rxile  14.)  3-YNTAx.  169 

their  neglecting  it.'  We  shall  perceive  this  more  clearly, 
if  we  substitute  a  noun  for  the  pronoun  :  as,  *  Much  de- 
pends upon  Tyro's  observing  of  the  rule,*  Sec.  But,  as  this 
construction  sounds  rather  harshly,  it  would,  in  general, 
be  better  to  express  the  sentiment  in  the  following,  or 
some  other  form  :  *  Much  depends  on  the  rule*s  being  ob- 
served: and  error  will  be  the  consequence  of  its  being 
neglected:*  or — 'on  observing  the  rule  ;  and — of  neglect- 
ing it.*  This  remark  may  be  applied  to  several  other 
modes  of  expression  to  be  found  in  this  work  ;  which, 
though  they  are  contended  for  as  strictly  correct,  are  not 
always  the  most  eligible,  on  account  of  their  unpleasant 
sound.     See  pages  49,  68,  155 — 159. 

We  sometimes  meet  with  expressions  like  the  follow- 
ing :  *  In  forming  ofh\%  sentences,  he  was  very  exact  ;* 
*  From  calling  of  names,  he  proceeded  to  blows.*  But 
this  is  incorrect  language  ;  for  prepositions  do  not,  like 
articles  and  pronouns,  convert  the  participle  itself  into 
the  nature  of  a  substantive  ;  as  we  have  shown  above  in 
the  phrase,  '  By  obsei^ving  which.*  And  yet  the  partici- 
ple with  its  adjuncts,  may  be  considered  as  a  substantive 
phrase  in  the  objective  case,  governed  by  the  preposition 
or  verb,  expressed  or  understood  :  as,  *  By  firomising 
much^  and  fierforming  but  little^  we  become  despicable.* 
'  He  studied  to  avoid  eoofiressing  himself  too  severely.* 

3.  As  the  perfect  participle  and  the  imperfect  tense 
are  sometimes  different  in  their  form,  care  must  be  taken 
that  they  be  not  indiscriminately  used.  It  is  frequently 
said,  '  He  begun,'  for  '  he  began  ;'  '  he  run  ;*  for  ^  he 
ran  ;*  '  He  drunk,*  for  '  he  drank  ;'  the  participle  being 
here  used  instead  of  the  imperfect  tense  :  and  much 
more  frequently  the  imperfect  tense  instead  of  the  parti- 
ciple :  as,  *  I  had  wrote,*  for  '  1  had  written  :'  '  I  was 
chose,'  for,  '  I  was  chosen  ;.'  '  I  have  eat,'  for,  *  I  have 
eaten.*  '  His  words  were  interwove  with  sighs  ;'  '  were 
interwoven*  '  He  would  have  spoke  ;*  '  spoken.*  *  He 
hath  bore  witness  to  his  faithful  servants  ;'  '  borne.*  *  By 
this  means  he  over-run  his  guide  ;*  '  over-ran.*  The  sun 
has  rose  ;'  '  risen.*  '  His  constitution  has  been  greatly 
shook,  l)Ut  his  mind  is  too  strong  to  be  shook  by  such 
causes  ;*    '  hhakcny*  in  both  places.     *  They  were  verses 

P 


170  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  (Rule  15. 

wrote  on  glass  ;'  '  nvritten*  '  Philosophers  have  often 
mistook  the  source  of  true  happiness  :'  it  ought  to  be 
*  mistaken* 

The  participle  ending  in  ed  is  often  improperly  con> 
tracted  by  changing  ed  into  t ;  as,  *  In  good  behaviour, 
he  is  not  surpast  by  any  pupil  of  the  school/  '  She  was 
much  distrest.'  They  ought  to  be  '  surpassed,*  '  dis- 
tressed.'' 

RULE  XV. 

Adverbs,  though  they  have  no  government  of 
case,  tense,  &:c.  require  an  appropriate  situation 
in  the  sentence,  viz.  for  the  most  part,  before 
adjectives,  after  verbs  active  or  neuter,  and  fre- 
quently betVv'een  the  auxiliary  and  the  verb  :  as, 
'  He  made  a  very  sensible  discourse  ;  he  spoke 
iinaffectedly  and  Jorcihly  ;  and  xvas  attentively 
heard  by  the  whole  assembly.' 

A  few  instances  of  erroneous  positions  of  adverbs  may 
*^erve  to  illustrate  the  rule.  '  He  must  not  expect  to  find 
study  agreeable  always  ;'  '  always  agreeable.'  '  We  al- 
ways find  them  ready  when  we  want  them  ;*  '  we  find 
them  always  ready,'  &c.  '  Dissertations  on  the  prophe- 
cies which  have  remarkably  been  fulfilled  ;'  '  which  have 
been  remarkably*  '  Instead  of  looking  contemptuously 
down  on  the  crooked  in  mind  or  in  body,  we  should  look 
up  thankfully  to  God,  who  hath  made  us  better  ;'  '  Instead 
of  looking  down  contemfituGusly,  &C.  we  should  thankfully 
look  uji,*  &c.  '  If  thou  art  blessed  naturally  with  a  good 
memory,  continually  exercise  it  ;*  '  naturally  blessed,*  £vc. 
'  exercise  it  continmilly* 

Sometimes  the  adverb  is  placed  with  propriety  before 
the  verb,  or  at  some  distance  after  it ;  sometimes  between 
the  two  auxiliaries;  and  sometimes  after  them  both  ;  as 
in  the  following  examples.  '  Vice  always  creeps  by  de- 
grees, and  insensibly  twines  around  us  those  concealed 
fetters,  by  which  we  are  at  last  completely  bound.'  '  He 
encouraged  the  English  Barons  to  carry  their  opposition 
farther*  *  They  compelled  him  to  declare  that  he  w^ould 
objure  the  realm  for  ever  ;*  instead  of,  '  to  carry  farther  ; 


Rule  15.)  SYNTAX.  171 

fheir  opposition  ;'  and  '  to  abjure  for  ever  tlie  realm.*— 
*  He  has  generally  been  reckoned  an  honest  man  :'  <  The 
book  may  always  be  had  at  such  a  place  :'  in  preference 
to  *  has  been  generally  ;*  and  '  may  be  always.'  '  These 
rules  will  be  clearly  understood,  after  they  have  been 
diligently  studied,*  are  preferable  to  *  These  rules  will 
clearly  be  understood,  after  they  have  diligently  been 
studied.* 

From  the  preceding  remarks  and  examples,  it  appears 
that  no  exact  and  determinate  rule  can  be  given  for  the 
placing  of  adverbs,  on  all  occasions.  The  general  rule 
may  be  of  considerable  u^e  ;  but  the  easy  flow  and  per- 
spicuity of  the  phrase,  are  the  things  which  ought  to  be 
chiefly  regarded. 

The  adverb  there  is  often  used  as  an  expletive,  or  as  a 
word  that  adds  nothing  to  the  sense  ;  in  which  case  it 
precedes  the  verb  and  the  nominative  noun  :  as,  '  There 
is  a  person  at  the  door  ;*  *  There  are  some  thieves  in  the 
house  ;*  which  would  be  as  well,  or  better,  expressed  by 
saying,  *  A  person  is  at  the  door  ;'  '  Some  thieves  are  ia 
the  house.'  Sometimes,  it  is  made  use  of  to  give  a  small 
degree  of  emphasis  to  the  sentence  :  as,  '  There  was  a 
man  sent  from  God,  whose  name  was  John.*  When  it  is 
api>]ied  in  its  strict  sense,  it  principally  follows  the  verb 
and  the  nominative  case  :  as,  *  The  man  stands  there* 

1 .  The  adverb  never  generally  precedes  the  verb  :  as, 
*  I  never  was  there  ;*  '  He  never  comes  at  a  proper  time.' 
When  an  auxiliary  is  used,  it  is  placed  indifferently,  either 
before  or  after  this  adverb  :  as,  '  He  was  never  seen  (or 
never  was  seen)  to  laugh  from  that  time.'  JS'^ever  seems 
to  be  improperly  used  in  the  following  passages.  *  Ask 
mie  never  so  much  dowry  and  gift.'  *  If  I  make  my 
hands  never  so  clean.'  *  Charm  he  never  so  wisely.' — 
The  word  '  ever*  would  be  more  suitable  to  the  sense. 
,  2.  In  imitation  of  the  French  idiom,  the  adverb  of  place 
nvhere^  is  often  used  instead  of  the  pronoun  relative  and  a 
preposition.  «  They  framed  a  protestation,  where  they 
repeated  all  their  former  claims  ;*  i.  e.  '  in  which  they 
repeated.'  '  The  king  was  still  determined  to  run  for- 
wards, in  the  same  course,  w/sere  he  was  already,  by  his 
precipitate  career,  too  fatally  advanced  j'  i.  e.  '  in  which 


172  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  (Rulc  16. 

be  was.'  But  it  would  be  better  to  avoid  this  mode  of 
expression. 

The  adverbs  hence^  thence^  and  nvhence,  imply  a  prepo- 
sition ^  for  they  signify,  *  from  this  place,  from  that  place, 
from  what  place.'  It  seems,  therefore,  strictly  speaking, 
to  be  improper  to  join  a  preposition  with  them,  because 
it  is  superfluous  :  as,  *  This  is  the  leviathan,  from  whence 
the  wits  ot  our  age  are  said  to  borrow  their  weapons  ;* 
*"An  ancient  author  prophecies  from  hence.*  But  the 
origin  of  these  words  is  little  attended  to,  and  the  prepo- 
sition yjow  is  so  often  used  in  construction  with  them,  that 
the  omission  of  it,  in  many  cases,  would  seem  stiff,  and  be 
disagreeable. 

The  adverbs  here,  there,  where,  are  often  improperly 
applied  to  verbs  signifying  motion,  instead  of  the  adverbs 
hither,  thither,  ivhither :  as, '  He  came  here  hastily  ;'  '  They 
rode  there  with  speed.*  They  should  be,  '  Pie  came  hith- 
er;'  'They  rode  thither,*  &c. 

3.  We  have  some  examples  of  adverbs  being  used  for 
substantives:  'In  1687,  he  erected  it  into  a  community 
of  regulars,  since  nvhen,  it  has  begun  to  increase  in  those 
countries  as  a  religious  order:'  i.  e.  'since  which  time.* 
'  A  little  while  and  I  shall  not  see  you  ;'  i.  e.  '  a  short 
time*  '  It  is  worth  their  while  ;'  i.  e.  '  it  deserves  their 
time  and  pains.'  But  this  use  of  the  word  rather  suits 
familiar  than  grave  style.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the 
phrase,  '  To  do  a  thing  any  honv  ;*  i.  e.  '  in  any  manner  ;' 
or,  ^somehow ;*  i.  e.  'in  some  manner.'  '  Somehow,  wor- 
thy as  these  people  are,  they  are  under  the  influence  of 
prejudice.' 

RULE    XVI. 

Two  negatives,  in  English,  destroy  one  an- 
other, or  are  equivalent  to  an  affirmative  :  as, 
*  Nor  did  they  not  perceive  him  ; '  that  is,  *  they 
did  perceive  him.'  '  His  language,  though  inel- 
egant, is  not  ungrammatical ;'  that  is,  '  it  is 
grammatical.' 

It  is  better  to  express  an  affirmation,  by  a  regular  affir- 
mative, than  by  two,  separate  negatives,  as  in  the  former 


Rule  17.)  SYNTAX.  173 

sentence  :  but  when  one  of  the  negatives  is  joined  to  an- 
other word^  as  in  the  latter  sentence,  the  two  negatives 
form  a  pleasing  and  delicate  variety  of  expression. 

Some  writers  have  improperly  employed  two  negatives 
instead  of  one  ;  as  in  the  following  instances  :  '  I  never 
did  repent  of  doing  good,  nor  shall  not  now  ;*  *  nor  shall 
Inoiv*  'Never  no  imitator  grew  up  to  his  author:* 
'  never  did  any^  Sec.  '  I  cannot  by  no  means  allow  him 
what  his  argument  must  prove  ;*  *  I  cannot  by  any  means,' 
&c.  or,  '  I  can  by  no  means*  '  Nor  let  no  comforter  ap- 
proach me;'  '  nor  let  awi/ comforter,'  t.z.  *  Nor  is  dan- 
ger ever  apprehended  in  such  a  government,  no  more 
than  we  commonly  apprehend  danger  from  thunder  or 
earthquakes  :'  it  should  be,  '  any  more*'-  '  Ariosto,  Tasso, 
Galileo,  no  more  than  Raphael,  were  nor  born  in  republics.' 
<  Neither  Ariosto,  Tasso,  nor  Galileo,  any  more  than 
Raphael,  was  born  in  a  republic* 

RULE    XVII. 

Prepositions  govern  the  objective  case  :  as,  *  I 
have  heard  a  good  character  of  her  ;"*  *  From 
him  that  is  needy  turn  not  away  ; '  '  A  word  to 
the  wise  is  sufficient  for  them  y'  ^  We  may  be 
good  and  happy  without  riches. ' 

The  following  are  examples  of  the  nominative  case  be- 
ing used  instead  of  the  objective.  *  Who  servest  thou 
under  ?'  '  Who  do  you  speak  to  ?'  *  We  are  still  much 
at  a  loss  who  civil  power  belongs  to  ?'  '  Who  do  you 
ask  for  ?*  *  Associate  not  with  those  who  none  can  speak 

well  of.*     In  all  these  places  it  ought  to  be  '  rjhom* 

See  JVote  1. 

The  prepositions  to  and/or  are  often  understood,  chief- 
ly before  the  pronouns  :  as,  '  Give  me  the  book  :'  '  Get 
me  some  paper ;'  that  is,  '  ro  me  ;  for  me.'  *  Wo  is  me  ;' 
i.  e.  '  to  me.'  'He  was  banished  England  ;'  i.  e.  ^from 
England.' 

1 .  The  preposition  is  often  separated  from  the  relative 
which  it  governs  :  as,  '  Whom  will  you  give  it  to  ?'  in- 
stead of  '  To  nvhom  will  you  give  it  r'  '  He  is  an  author 
whom  I  am  much  delighted  with  j'  «  The  world  is  too  po- 
P2 


174  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR^  (Rulc  17, 

lite  to  shock  authors  with  a  truth,  which  generally  their 
booksellers  are  the  first  that  inform  them  of.'  This  is  an 
itliom  to  which  our  language  is  strongly  inclined  ;  it  pre- 
vails in  common  conversation,  and  suits  very  well  with 
the  familiar  style  in  writing  :  but  the  placing  of  the  pre- 
position before  the  relative,  is  more  graceful,  as  well  as 
more  perspicuous,  and  agrees  much  better  with  the  so- 
lemn and  elevated  style. 

2.  Some  writers  separate  the  preposition  from  its  noun^ 
in  order  to  connect  different  prepositions  with  the  same 
noun  :  as,  <  To  suppose  the  zodiac  and  planets  to  be  effi- 
cient o/i  and  antecedent  to,  themselves.*  This,  whether 
in  the  familiar  or  the  solemn  style,  is  always  inelegant, 
and  should  generally  be  avoided.  In  forms  of  law,  and 
the  like,  where  fulness  and  exactness  of  expression 
must  take  place  of  every  other  consideration,  it  may  be 
admitted. 

3.  Different  relations,  and  difflerent  senses,  must  be  ex- 
pressed by  diff'erent  prepositions,  though  in  conjunction 
with  the  same  verb  or  adjective.  Thus  we  say,  '  to  con- 
verse luith  a  person,  upon  a  subject,  in  a  house,'  Sec.  We 
also  say,  '  We  are  disappointed  o/'a  thing,'  when  we  can- 
not get  it,  *  and  disappointed  in  it,'  when  we  have  it,  and 
find  it  does  not  answer  our  expectations.  But  two  differ- 
ent prepositions  must  be  improper  in  the  same  construe-^ 
lion,  and  in  the  same  sentence  :  as,  *  The  combat  between 
thirty  French  against  twenty  English.' 

In  some  cases,  it  is  difficult  to  say,  to  which  of  two  pre- 
positions the  preference  is  to  be  given,  as  both  are  used 
promiscuously,  and  custom  has  not  decided  in  favour  of 
either  of  them.  We  say,  *  Expert  at,'  and  *  expert  in  a 
thing.'  <  Expert  at  finding  a  remedy  for  his  mistakes  ;' 
'  Expert  in  deception.' 

When  prepositions  are  subjoined  to  nouns,  they  are  gen- 
erally the  same  that  are  subjoined  to  the  verbs  from  which 
the  nouns  are  derived  :  as,  'A  compliance  nvith  ;'  *  to 
comply  with ;'  *  A  disposition  to  tyranny,'  '  disposed  to  ty- 
rannise.' 

4.  As  an  accurate  and  appropriate  use  of  the  preposi- 
tion is  of  great  importance,  we  shall  select  a  considerable 
number  of  examples  of  impropriety,  in  the  application  of 
this  part  of  speech. 


Rule  17.)  SYNTAX.  175 

1  St.  With  respect  to  the  preposition  6/^—^  He  is  resol- 
ved of  going  to  the  Persian  court ;'  '  on  going,'  See.  *  He 
was  totally  dependent  of  the  Papal  crown  ;*  '  on  the  Pa" 
pal,*  &c.  '  To  call  of  a  person,'  and  '  to  wait  of  him  :'  <  on 
a  person,'  &c.  *  He  was  eager  of  recommending  it  to  his 
fellow -citizens,*  'in  recommending,'  &c.  Of  is  sometimes 
omitted,  and  sometimes  inserted,  after  worthy  :  as,  *  It  is 
worthy  observation,'  or,  *■  of  observation.'  But  it  would 
have  been  better  omitted  in  the  following  sentences.  '  The 
emulation,  who  should  serve  their  country  best,  no  longer 
subsists  among  them,  but  of  who  should  obtain  the  most 
lucrative  command.'  *  The  rain  hath  been  falling  of  a  long 
time  :*  *  falling  a  long  time.*  *  It  is  situation  chiefly  which 
decides  of  the  fortune  and  characters  of  men  ;'  *  decides 
the  fortune,'  or,  *  concerning-  the  fortune.*  '  He  found 
the  greatest  difficulty  of  writing  ;'  '  in  writing.*  *  Ii  might 
have  given  me  a  greater  taste  of  its  antiquities.*  A  taste 
O/'a  thing  implies  actual  enjoyment  of  it  :  but  a  taste yor 
it,  implies  only  a  capacity  of  enjoyment.  *  This  had  a 
much  greater  share  ot  inciting  him,  than  any  regard  after 
his  father's  commands  ;*  '  share  in  inciting,'  and  *■  regard 
to  his  father's,'  &c. 

2d.  With  respect  to  the  prepositions  to  said  for.  ^  You 
have  bestowed  your  favours  to  the  most  deserving  per- 
sons ;'  *  upon  the  most  deserving,'  Sec.  *  He  accused 
the  ministers  for  betraying  the  Dutch:'  *  q/"  having  be- 
trayed.' '  His  abhorrence  to  that  superstitious  figure  ;' 
*  q/'that,'  &c.  'A  great  change  to  the  better  ;'  'for  the 
better.'  *  Your  prejudice  to  my  cause  ;*  'a^azw*/.*  'The 
English  were  very  different  people  then  to  what  they  arc 
at  present  ;'  'from  what,'  &;c.  '  In  compliance  to  the 
declaration  ;'  '  nuith^  Sec.  '  It  is  more  than  they  thought 
for ;'  '  thought  of*  '  There  is  no  need  for  it ;'  'of  it.' — . 
i''or  is  superfluous  in  the  phrase,  '  More  than  he  knows 
for,*  '  No  discouragement  for  the  authors  to  proceed  ;* 
'  to  the  authors,'  &c.  '  It  was  perfectly  in  compliance  to 
some  persons  ;'  '  with  some  persons.'  '  The  wisest 
princes  need  not  think  it  any  diminution  to  their  great- 
ness, or  derogation  to  their  sufficiency,  to  rely  upon  coun- 
sel j'  '  diminution  r/j*  and  <  derogation /ro;?h* 


k 


176  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  (Rulc  17. 

3d.  With  respect  to  the  prepositions  'ivith  and  ufion. — 

*  Reconciling^  himself  with  the  king.*  *  Those  things 
which  have  the  greatest  resemblance  with  each  other,  fre- 
quently differ  the  most  *  '  That  such  rejection  should  be 
consonant  with  our  common  nature  .*  '  Conformable  with,' 
&c.  '  The  history  of  Peter  is  agreeable  wdth  the  sacred 
texts.*  In  all  the  above  instances,  it  should  be,  '  ^o,*  in- 
stead of  '  ivith.''  '  It  is  a  use  that  perhaps  I  should  not 
have  thought  on  ;*  '  thought  of.'  A  greater  quantity  may 
be  taken  from  the  heap,  without  making  any  sensible  air 
teration  upon  it ;  '  in  it.*  '  Intrusted  to  persons  on  whom 
the  parliament  could  confide  ;*  '  m  whom.*  ^  He  was 
made  much  on  at  Argos  ;'  '  much  o/'.'  '  If  policy  can 
prevail  upon  force  ;'  ^  over  force.*  '  I  do  likewise  dissent 
with  the  examiner  ;'  ^  from.* 

4th.  With  respect  to    the   prepositions  /n,  from^   £cc. 

*  They  should  be  informed  in  some  parts  of  his  character;* 
'  abouty  or  ^  concerning.'  <  Upon  such  occasions  as  fell  in- 
to their  cognizance  ;'  '  under'  *  That  variety  of  factions 
into  which  we  are  still  engaged  ;*  *  in  which.'  '  To  re- 
store myself  into  the  favour  ;'  *  to  the  favour.'  *  Could  he 
have  profited  from  repeated  experiences  ;*  '  by'  Froin 
seems  to  be  superfluous  after  forbear :  as,  '  He  could  not 
forbear  from  appointing  the  pope,*  Sec.  *  A  strict  observ- 
ance after  times  and  fashions  ;'  *  o/"  times.*  ^  The  charac- 
ter which  we  may  now  value  ourselves  by  drawing  ;*  ^u/ion 
drawing.*  '  Neither  of  them  shall  make  me  swerve  out 
of  the  path  ;*  ^fro7n  the  path.*  '  Ye  blind  guides,  which 
strain  at  a  gnat,  and  swallow  a  camel  1'  it  ought  to  be, 

*  which  strain  out  a  gnat,  or,  take  a  gnat  out  of  the  liquor 
by  straining  it.*  The  impropriety  of  the  preposition  has 
wholly  destroyed  the  meaning  of  the  phrase. 

The  preposition  among  generally  implies  a  numl^er 
of  things.  It  cannot  be  properly  vised  in  conjunction 
with  the  word  every^  which  is  in  the  singular  num- 
ber :  as,  '  Which  is  found  among  every  species  of  liber- 
ty ;'  '  The  opinion  seems  to  gain  ground  among  every 
body.' 

5.  The  preposition  to  is  made  use  of  before  nouns  of 
place,  when  they  follow  verbs  and  participles  of  motion  : 
iis,  '  I  went  to  London  ;'  <  I  am  going  to  t«wn.'    But  the 


Rule  18.)  SYNTAX.  177 

preposition  at  is  generally  used  after  tlie  neuter  verb  to 
be  :■  as,  *  I  have  been  at  London  ;'  *  I  was  at  the  place  ap- 
pointed ;'  '  I  shall  be  at  Paris.'  We  likewise  say  :  *  He 
touched,  arrived  at  any  place.*  The  preposition  in  is  set 
before  countries,  cities,  and  large  towns  :  as,  *  He  lives  in 
France,  in  London,  or  in  Birniingham.'  But  before  vil- 
lages, single  houses,  and  cities  which  are  in  distant  coun- 
tries, at  is  used  ;  '  He  lives  at  Hackney  ;'  *  He  resides  at 
Montpelier.' 

It  is  a  matter  of  indifference  with  respect  to  the  pro- 
noun one  another^  whether  the  preposition  of  be  placed 
between  the  two  parts  of  it,  or  before  them  both.  We 
may  say,  '  They  were  jealous  of  one  another  ;'  or,  <  They 
were  jealous  one  of  another  ;*  but  perhaps  the  former  is 
better. 

Participles  are  frequently  used  as  prepositions  :  as,  ex- 
cepting, respecting,  touching,  concerning,  according. 
'  They  were  all  in  fault  excefit  or  excefiting  him.' 

RULE  XVIII. 

Conjunctions  connect  the  same  moods  and 
tenses  of  verbs,  and  cases  of  nouns  and  pronouns  : 
as,  '  Candour  is  to  be  approved  and  practised ;"* 

*  If  thou  sincerely  desire,  and  earnestly  pursue 
virtue,  she  will  assuredly  be  found  by  thee,  and 
prove  a  rich  reward;'  'The  master  taught //^r 
and  me  to  write  ;'  '  He  and  she  were  school-fel- 
lows.'^ 

A  few  examples  of  inaccuracy  respecting  this  rule  may 
further  display  its  utility.  '  If  he  prefer  a  virtuous  life, 
and  is  sincere  in  his  professions,  he  will  succeed  ;'  *  If  he 
prefers*  <  To  deride  the  miseries  of  the  unhappy,  is  in- 
human ;  and  wanting  compassion  towards  them  is  unchris- 
tian ;'  '  and  to  nvant  compassion*  *  The  parliament  ad- 
dressed the  king,  and  has  been  prorogued  the  same  day  j* 

*  and  voas  prorogued.'     '  His  wealth  and  him  bid  adieu  to 

*  This  rule  refers  only  to  nouns  and  pronouns,  which  have 
rhe  same  bcarinjf  or  relation,  with  regard  to  other  parts  of  the 
sentence. 


178  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  (Rulc  19. 

each  other  ;'  <  and  he^  *  He  entreated  us,  my  comrade 
and  Ij  to  live  harmoniously  ;'  '  comrade  and  mc*  *  My 
sister  and  her  were  on  good  terms ;'  *  and  she.^  *  We 
often  overlook  the  blessings  vv^hich  are  in  our  possession, 
and  are  searching  after  those  which  are  out  of  our  reach  :* 
it  ought  to  be,  '  2xA  search  after.* 

1.  Conjunctions  are,  indeed,  frequently  made  to  connect 
different  moods  and  tenses  of  verbs  :  but  in  these  instances 
the  nominative  must  generally,  if  not  always,  be  repeated, 
which  is  not  necessary,  though  it  may  be  done,  under  the. 
construction  to  which  the  rule  refers.  We  may  say,  '  He 
lvv€8  temperately,  and  he  should  live  temperately  ;*  *  He 
Tnay  return^  but  he  nuill  not  continue  ;'  '  She  nvas  proud, 
though  she  is  now  humble:'  but  it  is  obvious,  that,  in 
such  cases,  the  nominative  ought  to  be  repeated ;  and 
that,  by  this  means,  the  latter  members  of  these  sentences 
are  rendered  not  so  strictly  dependent  on  the  preceding, 
as  those  are  which  come  under  the  rule.  When,  in  the 
progress  of  a  sentence,  we  pass  from  the  affirmative  to  the 
negative  form,  or  from  the  negative  to  the  affirmative,  the 
subject  or  nominative  is  always  resumed  :  as,  '-  He  is  rich, 
.but  he  is  not  respectable.'  '  He  is  not  rich,  but  he  is  res- 
pectable.' There  appears  to  be,  in  general,  equal  reason 
for  repeating  the  nominative,  and  resuming  the  subject^ 
when  the  course  of  the  sentence  is  diverted  by  a  change  of 
the  mood  or  tense.  The  following  sentences  may  there- 
fore be  improved.  *  Anger  glances  into  the  breast  of  a 
wise  man,  but  will  rest  only  in  the  bosom  of  fools  ;'  '  but 
rests  only  ;'  or,  '  but  it  will  rest  only.'  *  Virtue  is  praised 
by  many,  and  would  be  desired  also,  if  her  worth  were 
really  known  ;'  '  and  she  would.'  '  The  world  begins  to 
recede,  and  will  soon  disappear  ;*  <  and  it  will.' 

RULE    XIX. 

Some  conjunctions  require  the  indicative, 
some  the  subjunctive  mood  after  them.  It  is  a 
general  rule,  that  when  something  contingent  or 
doubtful  is  implied,  the  subjunctive  ought  to  be 
used  :  as^  *  If  I VJ ere  to  write,  he  would  not  re- 


Rule  19.)  syntax;  179 

gard  it ;'  *  He  will  not  be  pardoned,  unless  he  re* 
pent,' 

Conjunctions  that  are  of  a  positive  and  abso- 
lute nature,  require  the  indicative  mood.  '  As 
virtue  advances^  so  vice  recedes;"^  '  He  is  healthy, 
because  he  is  temperate.' 

The  conjunctions  if^  though^  unless^  excefit,  ivhether, 
Sec.  generally  require  the  subjunctive  mood  after  them : 
as,  *  If  thou  be  afflicted,  repine  not  ;*  '  Though  he  slaij 
me,  yet  will  I  trust  in  him  ;*  *  He  cannot  be  clean,  unless 
he  wash  himself;'  '  No  power,  except  it  ivere  given  from 
above  ;'  ^  Whether  it  were  I  or  they,  so  we  preach  '  But 
even  these  conjunctions,  when  the  sentence  does  not  im- 
ply doubt,  admit  of  the  indicative  :  as, '  Though  he  is  poor, 
he  is  contented.' 

The  following  example  may,  in  some  measure,  serve 
to  illustrate  the  distinction  between  the  subjunctive  and 
the  indicative  moods.  '  Though  he  nvere  divinely  inspired, 
and  spoke  therefore  as  the  oracles  of  God,  with  supreme 
authority  ;  though  he  were  endued  with  supernatural  pow- 
ers, and  could,  therefore,  have  confirmed  the  truth  of 
what  he  uttered,  by  miracles  ;  yet,  in  compliance  with  the 
Avay  in  which  human  nature  and  reasonable  creatures  are 
usually  wrought  upon,  he  reasoned.'  That  our  Saviour 
was  divinely  inspired,  and  endued  with  supernatural  pow- 
ers, are  positions  that  are  here  taken  for  granted,  as  not 
admitting  the  least  doubt ;  they  would  therefore  have  been 
better  expressed  in  the  indicative  mood:  '  Though  jie 
was  divinely  inspired  ;  though  he  was  endued  with  su- 
pernatural powers.*  The  subjunctive  is  used  in  the  like 
improper  manner  in  the  following  example  :  '  Though 
he  were  a  son,  yet  learned  he  obedience,  by  the  things 
which  he  suffered.'  But  in  a  similar  passage,  the  in- 
dicative, with  great  propriety,  is  employed  to  the  same 
purpose  :  *  Though  he  was  rich,  yet  for  your  sakes  he 
became  poor.' 

\.  Lci-it  and  that^  annexed   to  a  command  preceding 
necessarily  require  the   subjunctive  mood  :    as,    '  Love 

!>t  sleep,  lest  thou   come  to  poverty  ;'    '  Reprove  not  a 


^©t  siee 


180  '        ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  (Rulc  19. 

scorner,  lest  he  hate  thee  ;'  '  Take  heed  that  thou  sfieak 
not  to  Jacob.' 

If  with  but  following  it,  when  futurity  is  denoted,  re- 
quires the  subjunctive  mood  :  as,  *  ^he  do  but  touch  the 
hills,  they  shall  smoke ;'  ^Ifho.  be  but  discreet,  he  will  sue* 
ceed.*  But  the  indicative  ought  to  be  used,  on  this  occa- 
sion, when  future  time  is  not  signified  :  as,  *  i/J  in  this  ex- 
pression, he  does  but  jest,  no  offence  should  be  taken  ;*  *  If 
she  is  but  sincere,  I  am  happy,'  The  same  distinction  ap- 
plies to  the  following  forms  of  expression  :  ^  If  he  do  sub- 
mit, it  will  be  from  necessity  ;'  *  Though  he  does  submit? 
he  is  not  convinced  ;'  *  If  thou  do  not  reward  this  service, 
he  win  be  discouraged  :'  '  If  thou  dost  heartily  forgive 
him,  endeavour  to  forget  the  offence-' 

2.  In  the  following  instances,  the  conjunction  that^  ex- 
pressed or  understood,  seems  to  be  improperly  accompa- 
nied with  the  subjunctive  mood.  *  So  much  she  dreaded 
his  tyranny,  that  the  fate  of  her  friend  she  dare  not  lament.' 
*  He  reasoned  so  artfully  that  his  friends  would  listen,  and 
think  [  that']  he  vjerc  not  wrong.' 

3.  The  same  conjunction  governing  both  the  indicative 
and  the  subjunctive  moods,  in  the  same  sentence,  and  in 
the  same  circumstances,  seems  to  be  a  great  impropriety  : 
as  in  these  instances.  '  If  there  be  but  one  body  of  legis- 
lators, it  is  no  better  than  a  tyranny ;  z^  there  are  only  twO| 
there  will  want  a  casting  voice.'  '  If  a  man  have  a  hun- 
dred sheep,  and  one  of  them  is  gone  astray,'  Sec. 

4.  Almost  all  the  irregularities,  in  the  construction  of 
any  language,  have  arisen  from  the  ellipsis  of  some  words, 
which  were  originally  inserted  in  the  sentence,  and  made 
it  regular ;  and  it  is  probable,  that  this  has  been  the  case 
with  respect  to  the  conjunctive  form  of  words,  now  in 
use  ;  which  will  appear  from  the  following  examples  : 
^  We  shall  overtake  him  though  he  run  ;*  that  is,  '  though 
he  should  run  ;'  '  Unless  he  act  prudently,  he  will  not  ac- 
complish his  purpose  ;*  that  is,  '■  unless  he  shall  act  pru- 
dently.' *  If  he  succeed  and  obtain  his  end,  he  \vill  not  be 
the  happier  for  it ;'  that  is,  *  If  he  should  succeed,  and 
should  obtain  his  end.'  These  remarks  and  examples  are 
designed  to  show  the  original  of  our  present  conjunctive 
forms  of  expression  ;  and  to  enable  the  student  to  examine 


Rule  19.)  SYNTAX.  181 

the  propriety  of  using  them,  by  tracing  the  words  in 
question  to  their  proper  origin  and  ancient  connexions. 
But  it  is  necessary  to  be  more  particular  on  this  sub- 
ject, and  therefore  we  shall  add  a  few  observations  re- 
specting it. 

That  part  of  the  verb  which  grammarians  call  the  pre- 
sent tense  of  the  subjunctive  mood,  has  a  future  significa- 
tion. This  is  effected  by  varying  the  terminations  of  the 
second  and  third  persons  singular  of  the  indicative ;  as 
will  be  evident  from  the  following  examples  :  *  If  thou 
jirofiper^  thou  shouldst  be  thankful  ;*  *  Unless  he  study 
more  closely,  he  will  never  be  learned.'  Some  writei"s 
however  would  express  these  sentiments  without  thoac 
variations  ;  '  If  \\\q\x  {irosfierest^^  &c.  '  Unless  he  studies* 
&c.  and  as  there  is  great  diversity  of  practice  in  this  point, 
it  is  proper  to  offer  the  learners  a  few  remarks,  to  assist 
them  in  distinguishing  the  right  application  of  these  dif- 
ferent forms  of  expression.  It  may  be  considered  as  a 
rule,  that  the  changes  of  termination  are  necessary,  when 
these  two  circumstances  concur;  1st.  When  the  subject 
is  of  a  dubious  and  contingent  nature  ;  and  2d.  When  the 
verb  has  a  reference  to  future  time.  In  the  foUov/ing  sen- 
tences, both  these  circumstances  will  be  found  to  unite  : 

*  If  thou  injure  another,  thou  wilt  hurt  thyself;'  ^  He  has 
a  hard  heart ;  and  if  he  continue  impenitent,  he  must  suf- 
fer :'  '  He  will  maintain  his  principles,  though  he  lose  his 
estate ;'  '  Whether  he  succeed  or  not,  his  intention  is 
laudable  ;'  '  If  he  be  not  prosperous,  he  will  not  repine;' 

*  If  a  man  smite  his  servant,  and  he  die^  Sec.  Exodus  xxi. 
20.  In  all  these  examples,  the  things  signified  by  the 
verbs  are  uncertain,  and  refer  to  future  time.  But  in  the 
instances  which  follow,  future  time  is  not  referred  to  ; 
and  therefore  a  different  construction  takes  place  ;  *  If 
thou  livest  viVtuously,  thou  art  happy  ;'  '  Unless  he  mean's 
what  he  says,  he  is  doubly  faithless  ;'  '  If  he  aUoivs  the 
excellence  of  virtue,  he  does  not  regard  her  precepts  ;' 

*  Though  he  see?}is  to  be  simple  and  artless,  he  has  de- 
ceived us  ;'  *  Whether  viitue  is  better  than  rank  or  wealth, 
admits  not  of  any  dispute  ;'  '  If  thou  bclievest  vvilh  all  thy 
ueart,  thou  mayst,'  Sec.  Acts  \ni.   37.     There  are  many. 
seiUenceS)  introduced  by  conjunctions,  in  which  neither 

Q 


182  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  (Rulc  19. 

contingency  nor  futurity  is  denoted  :  as,  *  Though  he  ex' 
eels  her  in  knowledge,  she  far  exceeds  hini  in  virtue.' 
'  I  have  no  doubt  of  his  principles:  but  if  he  believes  the 
truths  of  religion,  he  does  not  act  according  to  them.' 

That  both  the  circumstances  of  contingency  and  futurity 
are  necessary,  as  tests  of  the  propriety  of  altering  the  ter- 
minations, will  be  evident,  by  inspecting  the  following 
examples  ;  which  show  that  there  are  instances  in  which 
neither  of  the  circumstances  alone  implies  the  other.  In 
the  three  examples  following,  contingency  is  denoted,  but 
not  futurity.  '  If  he  t/iinksas  he  speaks,  he  may  safely  be 
trusted.'  J  If  he  is  now  disposed  to  it,  I  wiU  perform  the 
oporution.'  '  He  acts  uprightly  unless  he  deceives  me.* 
In  the  following  sentences,  futurity  is  signified,  but  not 
contingency.  '  As  soon  as  the  sun  sets^  it  will  be  cooler.' 
*  As  the  autumn  advances,  these  birds  will  gradually  emi- 
grate.' 

It  appears,  from  the  tertor  of  the  examples  adduced,  that 
the  rules  above  mentioned  may  be  extended  to  assert,  that 
in  cases  wherein  contingency  and  futmity  do  not  concur,  it 
is  not  proper  to  turn  the  verb  from  its  signification  of  pre- 
sent time,  nor  to  vary  its  form  or  termination.  The  verb 
would  then  be  in  the  indicative  mood,  whatever  conjunc- 
tions m»ight  attend  it — If  these  rules,  which  seem  to  form, 
the  true  distinction  between  the  subjunctive  and  the  indi- 
cative moods  in  this  tense,  were  adopted  and  established 
in  practice,  we  should  have,  on  this  point,  a  principle  of 
decision  simple  and  precise,  and  readily  applicable  to 
every  case  that  might  occur. — It  will,  doubtless,  some- 
times happen,  that,  on  this  occasion,  as  well  as  on  many 
other  occasions,  a  strict  adherence  to  grammatical  rules, 
would  render  th€  language  stiff  and  formal :  but  when 
cases  of  this  sort  occur,  it  is  better  to  give  the  expression 
a  different  turn,  than  to  violate  grammar  for  the  sake  of 
ease,  or  even  of  elegance.     See  JR7ile  14.     JVbte  2. 

5.  On  the  form  of  the  auxiliaries  in  the  compound 
tenses  of  the  subjunctive  mood,  it  seems  proper  to  make 
a  few  observations.  Some  writers  express  themselves  iu 
the  perfect  tense,  as  follows :  *  If  thou  have  determined^ 
we  must  submit :'  *  Unless  he  /lave  consented,  the  writing 
V/'ill  be  void  :'  but  we  believe  that  few  authors  of  critical 


Rule  19.)  SYNTAX*  183 

sagacity  write  in  this  manner.  The  proper  form  seems 
to  be,  '  If  thou  hast  determined  >  unless  he  has  consented,' 
&c.  conformably  to  what  we  meet  with  in  the  Bible  :  '  I 
have  surnamed  thee,  though  thou  hast  not  known  me/ 
Isaiah  xlv.  4.  5.  *  What  is  the  hope  of  the  hypocrite, 
though  he  hath  gamed,'  &c.  Job  xxvii.  8.  See  also  Acts 
xxviii.  4. 

6.  In  the  pluperfect  and  future  tenses,  we  sometimes 
meet  with  such  expressions  as  these  ;  '  If  thou  had  ap- 
plied thyself  diligently,  thou  wouldst  have  reaped  the  ad- 
vantage ;'  '  Unless  thou  shall  speak  the  whole  truth,  wc 
cannot  determine  ;'  <  If  thou  ivill  undertake  the  business, 
there  is  little  doubt  of  success.'  This  mode  of  expressing 
the  auxiliaries  does  not  appear  to  be  warranted  by  the 
general  practice  of  correct  writers.  They  should  be  hadst, 
shaity  and  ivilt :  and  we  find  them  used  in  this  form,  in 
the  sacred  Scriptures. 

'  If  thou  hadst  known,'  5cc.  Luke  xix.  47.  '  If  thou 
hadst  been  here,'  &;c.  John  xi.  21.  <  If  thou  wilt,  thou 
canst  make  me  clean.'  Matt.  viii.  2.  See  also,  2  Sa?n.  ii. 
27.     Matt.  xvii.  4. 

7.  The  second  person  singular  of  the  imperfect  tense 
in  the  subjunctive  mood,  is  also  very  frequently  varied  in 
its  termination  :  as,  '  If  thou  loved  him  truly,  thou  wouldst 
obey  him  ;'  *  Though  thou  did  conform,  thou  hast  gained 
nothing  by  it.'  This  variation,  however,  appears  to  be 
improper.  Our  present  version  of  the  Scriptures,  which 
we  again  refer  to,  as  a  good  grammatical  authority  in 
points  of  this  nature,  decides  against  it.  '  If  thou  kntivest 
the  gift,'  &c.  John  iv.  10.  *  If  thou  didst  receive  it,  why 
dost  thou  glory  ?'  &c.  1  Cor.  iv.  7.  See  also  Dan.  v.  22. 
But  it  is  proper  to  remark,  that  the  form  of  the  verb  to  be^ 
when  used  subjunctively  in  the  impet-fect  tense,  is  indeed 
very  considerably  and  properly  varied  from  that  which  it 
has  in  the  imperfect  of  the  indicative  mood  :  as  the  learner 
will  perceive  by  turning  to  the  conjugation  of  that  verb.* 

8.  It  may  not  be  superfluous,  also  to  observe,  that  the 
auxiliaries  of  the  potential  mood,  when  applied  to  the  sub- 
junctive, do  not  change  the  termination  of  the  second  per- 

*  See  observations  on  the  manner  of  conjugating  the  snUjiihc- 
tive  mood,  at  pages  81,  93—94, 


184  ENGLISH    GHAMMAH.  (Rule  19. 

son  singular.  We  properly  say,  *  If  thou  ?77az/5^  or  canst 
a^o  ;'  '  Though  thou  mights t  live  ;'  '  Unless  thou  couldst 
read ;'  *  If  thou  ivoukht  learn  ;*  and  not  *  If  thou  may  or 
oan  go,*  &c.  It  is  sufficient,  on  this  point,  to  adduce  the 
authorities  of  Johnson  and  Lowth  5  '  If  thou  shouldst  go  ;' 
Johnson.  *  If  thou  mayst^  mightst,  or  couldst  love  ;'  Loiuth. 
Some  authors  think,  that  when  that  expresses  the  motive 
©r  end,  the  termination  of  these  auxiliaries  should  be  vari- 
ed :  as,  *  I  advise  thee,  that  thou  may  beware  ;'  *  He  check- 
ed thee,  that  thou  should  not  presume  :'  but  there  does  not 
appear  to  be  any  ground  for  this  exception.  If  the  ex- 
pression of  <  condition,  doubt,  contingency,*  8cc.  does  not 
warrant  a  change  in  the  form  of  these  auxiliaries,  why 
should  they  have  it,  when  a  motive  or  end  is  expressed  ? 
The  translators  of  the  Scriptures  do  not  appear  to  have 
made  the  distinction  contended  for.  <  Thou  buildest  the 
wall,  that  thou  mayst  be  their  king,*  J\^eh.  vi.  6.  *  There 
is  forgiveness  with  thee,  that  thou  mayst  be  feared.*  Psabna 
cxxx.  4. 

From  the  preceding  observations  under  this  rule,  it  ap- 
pears, that  with  respect  to  what  is  termed  the  present 
tense  of  any  verb,  when  the  circumstances  of  contingency 
and  futurity  concur,  it  is  proper  to  vary  the  terminations 
of  the  second  and  third  persons  singular  :  that  without  the 
concurrence  of  those  circumstances,  the  terminations 
should  not  be  altered  ;  and  that  the  verb  and  the  auxilia- 
ries of  the  three  past  tenses,  and  the  auxiliaries  of  the 
future,  undergo  no  alterations  whatever  :  except  the  im- 
perfect of  the  verb  to  be^  which,  in  cases  denoting  contin- 
gency, is  varied  in  all  the  persons  of  the  singular  number. 
See/i.  62,      The  A^te. 

Afler  perusing  what  has  been  advanced  on  this  subject, 
it  will  be  natural  for  the  student  to  inquire,  what  is  the 
extent  of  the  subjunctive  mood  ?  Some  grammarians 
think  it  extends  only  to  what  is  called  the  present  tense  of 
verbs  generally,  under  the  circumstances  of  contingency 
and  futurity  ;  and  to  the  imperfect  tense  of  the  verb  to  be^ 
when  it  denotes  contingency  :  because  in  these  tenses 
only,  the  form  of  the  verb  admits  of  variation  ;  and  they 
suppose  that  it  is  variation  merely  which  constitutes  the 
distinction  of  moods.     It  is  the  opinion  of  other  gramma- 


Rule  190  sYx^T^uc.  185 

riansj  that,  besides  the  two  cases  just  mentioned,  all  verbs 
in  the  three  past,  and  the  two  future  tensts,  are  in  the 
subjunctive  mood,  when  they  denote  contingency  or  un- 
certainty, though  they  have  not  any  change  of  termina- 
tion ;  and  that,  when  contingency  is  not  signified,  the 
verb,  through  all  these  five  tenses,  belongs  to  the  indica- 
tive mood,  whatever  conjunction  may  attend  it.  They 
think,  that  the  definition  and  nature  of  the  subjunctivQ 
mood,  have  no  reference  to  change  of  termination,  but 
that  they  refer  merely  to  the  manner  of  the  being,  action, 
or  passion,  signified  by  the  verb  ;  and  that  the  subjunctive 
mood  may  as  properly  exist  without  a  variation  of  the 
verb,  as  the  infinitive  mood,  which  has  no  terminations 
different  from  those  of  the  indicative.  The  decision  of 
this  point  may  not,  by  some  grammarians,  be  thought  of 
much  consequence.  But  the  rules  which  ascertain  the 
propriety  of  varying,  or  not  varying,  the  terminations  of 
the  verb,  will  certainly  be  deemed  important.  Theso 
rules  may  be  well  observed,  without  a  uniformity  oF  senti- 
ment respecting  the  nature  and  limits  of  the  subjunctive 
mood.  For  further  remarks  on  the  subject,  see  pages- 
eg— 71.     75—77.     93—95.     98—101.* 

*  We  have  stated,  foi*  the  student's  information,  the  different" 
opinions  of  grammarians,  respecting  the  EngUsh  Subjunctive 
Mood  :  Firsty  that  which  supposes  there  is  no  such  mood  in  our 
language ;  Secondly,  that  which  extends  it  no  farther  than  the 
Variations  of  the  verb  extend  ;  Thirdly,  that  which  we  have 
adopted,  and  explained  at  large  ;  and  which,  in  general,  cor- 
responds with  the  views  of  the  most  approved  writers  on  English 
Grammar.  We  may  add  a.  Fo7irth  opimoa ;  which  appears  to 
possess,  at  least,  much  plausibility.  This  opinion  admits  the 
arrangement  we  have  given,  with  one  variation,  namely,  that  of 
assigning  to  the  first  tense  of  the  subj'uictive,  two  forms  :  1st. 
that  which  simply  denotes  contingency  :  as,  *  If  he  desires  it,  I 
will  perform  the  operatic^;*  that  is,  *  If  he  noio  desires  it:* 
2dly,  that  which  denotes  both  contingency  and  futvu-ity  :  as,  *  If 
he  desire  it,  I  will  perform  the  operation  ;*  that  is,  '  If  he  should 
hereafter  desire  it.'  This  last  theory  of  the  subjunctive  mood, 
claims  the  merit  of  rendering  the  whole  system  of"  the  moods 
consistent  and  regular;  of  being  more  conformable  than  any 
other,  to  the  definition  of  the  subjunctive;  and  of  not  referriiip; 
to  the  indicative  mood  forms  of  expression,  which  ill  acsord- 

vh  Us  i)implicity  and  natiu'e. 

Q2 


186  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.^  (Rulc  19. 

9.  Some  conjunctions  have  their  corresponding  con- 
junctions belonging  to  them,  so  that,  in  the  subsequent 
member  of  the  sentence,  the  latter  answers  to  the  for- 
mer: as, 

1st.  Though — ijet^  nevertheless:  as,  ^Though  he  was 
rich,  yet  for  our  sakes  he  became  poor.* 

2d.  Whether — or:  as,  'Whether  he  will  go  or  not,  I 
cannot  tell.' 

lid.  Either — or :  as,  *  I  will  either  send  it,  or  bring  it 
myself.* 

4th.  Neither — nor  :  as,  *  Neither  thou  nor  I  am  able  to 
compass  it.' 

5th.  As — as  :  expressing  a  comparison  of  equality  :  as, 
'  She  is  as  amiable  as  her  sister.' 

6th.  As — so :  expressing  a  comparison  of  equality  :  as, 

*  As  the  stars,  so  shall  thy  seed  be.' 

7th.  As — so  :  expressing  a  comparison  of  quality :  as, 
'  As  the  one  dieth,  so  dieth  the  other.' 

8th.  So-^as :  with  a  verb  expressing  a  comparison  of 
equality :  as,  '  To  sec  thy  glory,  so  as  I  have  seen  thee  in 
the  sanctuary.' 

9th.  So — as :  with  a  negative  and  an  adjective  expressing 
a  comparison  of  quantity  :  as,  ^  Pompey  was  not  so  great 
a  man  as  Caesar.' 

10th.  So — that:  expressing  a  consequence;  as,  *  He 
was  so  fatigued,  that  he  could  scarcely  move.* 

The  conjunctions  or  and  7ior  may  often  be  used,  with 
r.early  equal  propriety.  '  The  king,  whose  character  was 
jiOt  sufficiently  vigorous,  nor  decisive,  assented  to  the 
measure.'  In  this  sentence,  or  would  perhaps  have  been 
better :  but,  in  general,  nor  seems  to  repeat  the  negation 
in  the  former  part  of  the  sentence,  and  therefore  gives- 
more  emphasis  to  the  expression. 

10.  Conjunctions  are  often  improperly  used,  both  singly 
and  in  pairs.  The  following  are  examples  of  this  impro- 
priety. '  The  relations  are  so  uncertain,  as  that  they  re- 
quire a  great  deal  of  examination  :'  it  should  be,  *  that 
they  require,'  &c.  '  There  was  no  man  so  sanguine,  who 
did  not  apprehend  some  ill  consequences  :'  it  ought  to  be, 

*  So  sanguine  as  not  to  apprehend,'  &c.  or,  '  no  man,  how 
rsunguine  soever,  who  did  not,*  S^c.    *  To  trust  in  him  is 


Rule  19.)  SYNTAX.  187 

no  more  but  to  acknowledge  his  power.'  *  This  is  na 
other  but  the  gate  of  Paradise.*  In  both  these  instances, 
but  should  be  than,  *  We  should  sufficiently  weigh  the 
objects  of  our  hope ;  whether  they  are  such  as  we  may 
reasonably  expect  from  them  what  they  propose,'  8cc.  It 
ought  to  be,  *  that  we  may  reasonably,'  &;c.  *  The  duke 
had  not  behaved  with  that  loyalty  as  he  ought  to  have 
done  ;'  '  with  which  he  ought.'  '  In  the  order  as  they  lie 
in  his  preface  :'  it  should  be,  '  in  order  as  they  lie  ;'  or,x 
*  in  the  order  in  which  they  lie.'  *  Such  sharp  replies  that 
cost  him  his  life  ;'  *  as  cost  him,'  Sec.  *  If  he  were  truly 
that  scarecrow,  as  he  is  now  commonly  painted  •,'  '  Such 
a  scarecrow,'  See.  *  I  wish  I  could  do  that  justice  to  his 
memory,  to  oblige  the  painters,'  &c.  *  do  such  justice  as 
to  oblige,'  &c. 

There  is  a  peculiar  neatness  in  a  sentence  beginning 
with  the  conjunctive  form  of  a  verb.  '  Were  there  no 
difference,  there  would  be  no  choice.' 

A  double  conjunctive,  in  two  correspondent  clauses  of  a 
sentence,  is  sometimes  made  use  of :  as,  '  Had  he  done 
this,  he  had  escaped  ;'  ^  Had  the  linnitations  on  the  prero- 
gative been,  in  his  time,  quite  fixed  and  certain,  his  integ- 
rity had  made  him  regard  as  sacred,  the  boundaries  of  the- 
constitution/.  The  sentence  in  the  common  form  would 
have  read  thus :  '  If  the  limitations  on  the  prerogative  had 
been,  &c.  his  integrity  would  have  made  him  regard,'  &c. 

The  particle  c.?,  when  it  is  connected  with  the  pronoun 
such^  has  the  force  of  a  relative  pronoun  :  as,  *  Let  such  as 
presume  to  advise  others,  look  well  to  their  own  conduct ;' 
which  is  equivalent  to,  *  Let  the?n  who  presume,'  &c.  But 
when  used  by  itself,  this  particle  is  to  be  considered  as  a 
conjunction,  or  perhaps  as  an  adverb.     See  the  Key. 

C3ur  language  wants  a  conjunction  adapted  to  familiar 
style,  equivalent  to  notwithstanding.  The  words /or  all 
that^  seem  to  be  too  low.  '  The  word  was  in  the  mouth  of 
every  one,  but,  for  all  that,  the  subject  may  still  be  a  secret.* 

Jn  regard  that  is  solemn  and  antiquated ;  because  would 
do  much  better  in  the  following  sentence.  *  It  cannot  be 
otherwise,  in  regard  that  the  French  prosody  differs  from 
that  of  every  other  language.' 


188  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.'-  (RuIc  20. 

The  word  excefit  i&  far  preferable  to  other  than.  ^  It 
admitted  of  no  effectual  cure  other  than  amputation.'  Ex- 
cefit is  also  to  be  preferred  to  all  but,  '  They  were  happy 
all  but  the  stranger/ 

In  the  two  following  phrases^  the  conjunction  as  is  im- 
properly omitted ;  '  Which  nobody  presumes,  or  is  so 
sanguine  a  to  hope.*  *  I  must,  however,  be  so  just  a  to  own.' 

The  conjunction  that  is  often  properly  omitted,  and  un- 
derstood ;  as,  *  I  beg  you  would  come  to  me  ;*  '  See  thou 
do  it  not  ;*  instead  of  Uhat  you  would,'  'that  thou  do.*  But 
in  the  following  and  many  similar  phrases,  this  conjunc- 
tion were  much  better  inserted:  *  Yet  it  is  reason  the 
memory  of  their  virtues  remain  to  posterity.'  It  shoulc4 
be,  '  Yet  it  i^jiist  that  the  memory,'  £cc. 

RULE    XX. 

When  the  qualities  of  different  things  are 
Gompared,  the  latter  noun  or  pronoun  is  not  gov- 
erned by  the  conjunction  than  or  as,  but  agrees 
with  the  verb,  or  is  governed  by  the  verb  or  the 
preposition,  expressed  or  understood  :  as,  *Thou 
art  wiser  than  I ; '  that  is,  *  than  I  am. '  '  They 
loved  him  more  than  me  ;'  i.  e.  '  more  than  they 
loved  me.'  'The  sentiment  is  well  expressed 
by  Plato,  but  much  better  by  Solomon  than 
him  ;'  that  is,  ^  than  by  him.  '^ 

The  propriety  or  impropriety  of  many  phrases,  in  thfe 
preceding  as  v/ell  as  in  some  other  forms,  may  be  disco* 
vered,  by  supplying  the  words  that  are  not  expressed  ; 
whicli  will  be  evident  from  the  following  instances  of  er- 
roneous construction.  '  He  can  read  better  than  me.* 
*  He  is  as  good  as  her.*  '  Whether  I  be  present  or  no.* 
<  Who  did  this  ?  Me.'  By  supplying  the  words  under- 
stood in  each  of  these  phrases,  their  impropriety  and  gov- 
erning rule  will  appear :  as,  *  Better  than  I  can  read  ;* 
'  As  good  as  she  is  ;'  *  Present  or  not  present ;'  *  I  did  it.* 

1 .  By  not  attending  to  this  rule,  many  errors  have  been 
eornmitted  :  a  number  of  which  is  subjoined,  as  a  furthei* 

*  See  the  Tcnih  edition  of  the  Key  :  Rule  sx.    Tl|e  Note. 


Rule  21.)  syNTA:^:.  189 

caution  and  direction  to  the  learner.  *  Thou  art  a  much 
greater  loser  than  me  by  his  death.'  *  She  suffers  hourly- 
more  than  me.'  *  We  contributed  a  third  more  than  the 
Dutch,  who  were  obliged  to  the  same  proportion  more 
than  us.*  '  King  Charles,  and  more  than  him,  the  duke 
and  the  popish  faction,  were  at  liberty  to  form  new 
schemes.'  '  The  drift  of  all  his  sermons  was,  to  prepare 
the  Jews  for  the  reception  of  a  prophet  mightier  than 
him,  and  whose  shoes  he  was  not  worthy  to  bear.'  '  It 
was  not  the  work  of  so  eminent  an  author,  as  him  to  whom 
it  was  first  imputed.*  *  A  stone  is  heavy,  and  the  sand 
weighty  ;  but  a  fool's  wrath  is  heavier  than  them  both.' 

*  If  the  king  give  us  leave,  we  may  perform  the  office  as 
well  as  them  that  do.*  In  these  passages  it  ought  to  be, 
'  /,  wc,  he,  they,  respectively.' 

When  the  relative  vjho  immediately  follows  than,  it 
seems  to  form  an  exception  to  the  20th  rule  :  for  in  that 
connexion,  the  relative  must  be  in  the  objective  case  :  as, 
'  Alfred,  than  nuhom,  a  greater  king  never  reigned,'  &c. 

*  Beelzebub,  tha7i  nvhom,  Satan  excepted,  none  higher  sat,' 
&c.  It  is  remarkable  that  in  such  instances,  if  the  per- 
sonal pronoun  were  used,  it  would  be  in  the  nominative 
case  ;  as,  *  A  greater  king  never  reigned  than  he,*  that  is, 
<  than  he  ivas*  '  Beelzebub,  than  he,*  &c.  that  is,  ^  t^ian 
he  sat*  The  phrase  than  whom,  is,  however,  avoided  by 
the  best  modern  writers. 

RULE  xxr. 

To  avoid  disagreeable  repetitions,  and  to  ex- 
press our  ideas  in  few  words,  an  ellipsis,  or  omis- 
sion of  some  words,  is  frequently  admitted.  In- 
stead of  saying,  *  He  was  a  learned  man,  he  was 
a  wise  man,  and  he  was  a  good  man  ;'  we  make 
use  of  the  ellipsis,  and  say,  '  He  was  a  learned, 
wise,  and  good  man.' 

When  the  omission  of  words  would  obscure 
the  sentence,  weaken  its  force,  or  be  attended 
with  an  impropriety,  they  must  be  expressed. 
In  the  sentence^  *  We  are  apt  to  love  who  lovQ, 


190  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  (Rulc  21. 

US,'  the  word  them  should  be  supplied.  *  A 
beautiful  field  and  trees,'  is  not  proper  language. 
It  should  be,  '  Beautiful  fields  and  trees;'  or, 
^  A  beautiful  field  and  fine  trees.' 

Almost  all  compounded  sentences  are  more  or  less  el- 
liptical ;  some  examples  of  which  may  be  seen  under  the 
different  parts  of  speech. 

1.  The  ellipsis  of  the  article  is  thus  used;  *  A  man, 
woman,  and  child  :*  that  is,  *  a  man,  a  woman,  and  a 
child.*  *  A  house  and  garden  ;'  that  is,  *  a  house  and  a 
garden.'  '  The  sun  and  moon  ;'  that  is,  <  the  sun  and  the 
tnoon.'  '  The  day  and  hour  ;'  that  is,  *  the  day  and  the 
hour.'  In  all  these  instances,  the  article  being  once  ex- 
pressed, the  repetition  of  it  becomes  unnecessary.  There 
is,  however,  an  exception  to  this  observation,  when  some 
peculiar  emphasis  requires  a  repetition  ;  as  in  the  follow- 
ing sentence.  '  Not  only  the  year,  but  the  day  and  the 
hour.*  In  tliis  case,  the  ellipsis  of  the  last  article  would 
be  improper.  When  a  different  form  of  the  article  is  re- 
quisite, the  article  is  also  properly  repeated  :  as,  '  a  house 
and  an  orchard  ;'  instead  of,  '  a  housq  and  orchard.' 

2.  The  7ioun  is  frequently  omitted  in  the  following  man- 
ner^ '  The  laws  of  God  and  man  ;'  that  is,  '  the  laws  of 
God  and  the  laws  of  man.'  In  some  very  emphatical  ex- 
pressions, the  ellipsis  should  not  be  used  :  as,  '  Christ  the 
power  of  God,  and  the  v/isdom  of  God ;'  which  is  more 
emphatical  than,  '  Christ  the  power  and  wisdom  of  God.' 

3.  The  ellipsis  of  the  adjective  is  used  in  the  following 
manner.  *  A  delightful  garden  and  orchard  ;'  that  is,  *  a 
delightful  garden  and  a  delightful  orchard  ;*  '  A  little 
man  and  woman  ;'  that  is,  '  A  little  man  and  a  little  wo- 
man.' In  such  elliptical  expressions  as  these,  the  adjec- 
tive ought  to  have  exactly  the  same  signification,  and  to 
be  quite  as  proper,  when  joined  to  the  latter  substantive 
as  to  the  former  ;  otherwise  the  ellipsis  should  not  be  ad- 
mitted. 

Sometimes  the  ellipsis  is  improperly  applied  to  nouns 
of  different  numbers  :  as,  *  A  magnificent  house  and  gar- 
dens.* In  this  case  it  is  better  to  use  another  adjective  , 
a^s,  ^  A  magnificent  house  and  fine  gardens.' 


Rule  21.)  syntax;  191 

4.  The  following  is  the  ellipsis  of  the  {ironoun.  « I  lov6 
and  fear  him  ;'  that  is, '  I  love  him,  and  I  fear  him/  «  My 
house  and  lands ;'  that  is,  '  My  house  and  my  lands.'  In 
these  instances  the  ellipsis  may  take  place  with  propriety ; 
but  if  we  would  be  more  express  and  emphatical,  it  must 
not  be  used :  as,  '  His  friends  and  his  foes  ;'  '  My  sons 
and  my  daughters.' 

In  some  of  the  common  forms  of  speech,  the  relative 
pronoun  is  usually  omitted  :  as,  '  This  is  the  man  they 
love  ;'  instead  of,  *  This  is  the  man  nvhQm  they  love.' — 
'  These  are  the  goods  they  bought :'  for,  *  These  are  the 
goods  ivhich  they  bought.' 

In  complex  sentences,  it  is  much  better  to  have  the  rel- 
ative pronoun  expressed  :  as  it  is  more  proper  to  say, 
'  The  posture  in  which  I  lay,'  than,  *  In  the  posture  I 
lay  :'  *  The  horse  on  v/hich  I  rode,  fell  down  j'  than  *  The 
horse  I  rode,  fell  dov/n.' 

The  antecedent  and  the  relative  connect  the  parts  of  a 
sentence  together,  and,  to  prevent  obscurity  and  confusion, 
they  should  answer  to  each  other  with  great  exactness, 
*  We  speak  that  we  do  know,  and  testify  that  we  have 
seen.' — Here  the  ellipsis  is  manifestly  improper,  and 
ought  to  be  supplied  :  as,  *  We  speak  that  which  we  do 
know,  and  testify  that  ivhich  we  have  seen.' 

5.  The  ellipsis  of  the  verb  is  used  in  the  following  in- 
stances. *  The  man  was  old  and  crafty ;'  that  is,  '  the 
man  was  old,  and  the  man  was  crafty  '  '  She  was  young, 
and  beautiful,  and  good  :'  that  is,  '  She  was  young,  she 
was  beautiful,  and  she  was  good.*     '  Thou  art  poor,  and 

i  wretched,  and  miserable,  and  blind,  and  naked.*  If  we 
I  would  fill  up  the  ellipsis  in  the  last  sentence,  thou  art 
I  ought  to  be  repeated  before  each  of  the  adjectives. 
I  If,  in  such  enumeration,  we  choose  to  point  out  one 
I  property  above  the  rest,  that  property  must  be  placed  last, 
\  and  the  ellipsis  supplied  :  as,  *  She  is  young  and  beauti- 
I  ful,  and  she  is  good.* 

'  I  went  to  see  and  hear  him  ;*  that  is,  *  I  went  to  see 
him,  and  I  went  to  hear  him.*  In  this  instance  there  is 
not  only  an  ellipsis  of  the  governing  verb  /  nvent^  but 
likewise  of  the  sign  of  Uie  infinitive  mood,  which  is  gov- 
I  e^-ned  by  it. 


li^ 


192  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  (Rule  21 » 

Do^  did,  have,  had,  shall,  will,  may,  might,  and  the  I'est 
of  the  auxiliaries  of  the  compound  tenses,  are  frequently 
used  alone,  to  spare  the  repetition  of  the  verb  :  as,  '  He 
regards  his  word,  but  thou  dost  not  :'  i.  e.  <  dost  not  re- 
gard it.'  *  We  succeeded,  but  they  did  not  :'  <  did  not 
succeed  ;'  I  have  learned  rny  task,  but  you  have  not  ;' 
*  have  not  learned.*  '  They  must,  and  they  shall  be 
punished  ;'  that  is,  <■  they  must  be  punished.*  See  the 
Key. 

6.  The  ellipsis  of  the  adverb  is  used  in  the  following 
manner.  '  He  spoke  and  acted  wisely  ;'  that  is,  '  He 
spoke  wisely,  and  he  acted  wisely.*  '  Thrice  I  went  and 
offered  my  service  ;'  that  is,  '  Thrice  I  went,  and  thrice 
I  offered  my  service.' 

7.  The  ellipsis  of  the  prejiosition,  as  well  as  of  the  verb, 
is  seen  in  the  following  instances  :  '  He  went  into  the 
abbeys,  halls,  and  public  buildings  ;'  that  is,  *  he  went  in- 
to the  abbeys,  he  went  into  the  halls,  and  he  went  into  the 
public  buildings.'  *  He  also  went  through  all  the  streets 
and  lanes  of  the  city  ;'  that  is,  *  Through  all  the  streets, 
and  through  all  the  lanes,*  Sec.  *  He  spoke  to  every  man 
and  woman  there,'  that  is,  *  to  every  man  and  to  every 
woman.'  '  This  day,  next  month,  last  year  ;'  that  is,  *  on 
this  day,  in  the  next  month,  in  the  last  year  ;'  *  The  Lord 
do  that  which  seemeth  him  good ;'  that  is,  *  which  seem- 
eth  to  him.' 

8.  The  ellipsis  of  the  conjunction  is  as  follows  :  *  They 
confess  the  power,   wisdom,  goodness,   and  love,  of  their 
creator ;'  i.  e.  '  the  power,  and  wisdom,  and  goodness 
and  love  of,'  £cc.     '  Though  I  love  him,   I  do  not  flatter " 
him,'  that  is,  '  Though  I  love   him,  yet  I  do  not  flatter 
him.* 

9.  The  ellipsis  of  the  interjection  is  not  very  common  ; 
it,  however,  is  sometimes  used  :  as,  '  Oh  !  pity  and 
shame  !'  that  is,  ^  Oh  pity  I  Oh  shame  1* 

As  the  ellipsis  occurs  in  almost  every  sentence  in  the 
English  language,  numerous  examples  of  it  might  be 
given  ;  but  only  a  few  more  can  be  admitted  here. 

In  the  following  instance  there  is  a  very  considerable 
one  :  '  He  will  often  argue,  that  if  this  part  of  our  trade 
were  well  cultivated,  we  should  gain  from  one  nation  9 


Rule  22.)  syntax;  193 

4nd  if  another,  from  another  ;*  that  is,  *  He  Avill  often  ar- 
gue, that  if  this  part  of  our  trade  were  well  cultivated,  we 
should  gain  from  one  nation,  and  if  another  part  of  our 
trade  were  well  cultivated,  we  should  gain  from  another 
nation.* 

The  following  instances,  though  short,  contain  much 
of  the  ellipsis  ;  ^  Wo  is  me;*  i.  e.  *  wo  is  to  me.*  '  To 
let  blood  ;'  i.  e.  '  to  let  out  tlood.*     ^  To  let  down  ;*  i.  e# 

*  to  let  it  fall  or   slide  down.*     *  To  walk  a  mile  ;'  i.  e. 

*  to  walk  through  the  space  of  a  mile.'  '  To  sleep  all 
night  ;*  i.  e.  *  To  sleep  through  all  the  night.'  '  To  go 
a  fishing  ;'  '  To  go  a  hunting  ;'  i.  e.  '  to  go  on  a  fishing 
voyage  or  business  ;'  '  to  go  on  a  hunting  party.*  *  I  dine 
at  two  o'clock ;'  i.  e.  ^  at  two  of  the  clock.*  *  By  sea,  by 
land,  on  shore  ;*  i.  e.  'By  the  sea,  by  the  land,  on  the 
shore.* 

10.  The  examples  that  follow  are  produced  to  show  the 
impropriety  of  ellipsis  in  some  paiiicular  cases.  '  The 
land  was  always  possessed,  during  pleasure,  by  those  in- 
trusted with  the  command  ;'  it  should  be,  ^  those  fiei^sons 
intrusted;*  or,  'those  who  ivere  intrusted.*  'If  he  had 
read  further,  he  would  have  found  several  of  his  objec- 
tions might  have  been  spared  :'  that  is,  '  he  would  have 
found  i/mt  several  of  his  objections,'  &c.  '  There  is 
nothing  men  are  more  deficient  in,  than  knowing  their 
own  characters.'  It  ought  to  be,  '  nothing  in  which  men  ;* 
and,  '  than  in  knowing.'  '  I  scarcely  know  any  part  of 
natural  philosophy  would  yield  more  variety  and  use  ;'  it 
should  be,  '  which  would  yield,'  Sec.  'In  the  temper  of 
mind  he  was  then  ;'  i.  e.  'm  which  he  then  was.*  '  The 
little  satisfaction  and  consistency,  to  be  found  in  most  of 
the  systems  of  divinity  I  have  met  with,  made  me  betake 
myself  to  the  sole  reading  of  the  Scriptures  :'  it  ought  to 
be,  '  which  are  to  be  found,'  and,  '  which  I  have  met 
with.'  '  He  desired  they  might  go  to  the  altar  together, 
and  jointly  return  their  thanks  to  wjiom  only  they  were" 
due  ;*  i.  e.  '  to  him  to  whom,'  Sec. 

nULE    XXII. 

All  the  parts  of  a  sentence  should  correspond 
to  each  other  :    a  regular  and  dependent  con- 

R 


194  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.""  (Rulc  22, 

struction,  throughout,  should  be  carefully  pre- 
served. The  following  sentence  is  therefore  in- 
accurate :  '  He  was  more  beloved,  but  not  so 
much  admired,  as  Cinthio.'  More  requires  than 
after  it,  which  is  no  where  found  in  the  sentence, 
it  should  be,  'He  was  more  beloved  than  Cin- 
thio,  but  not  so  much  admired.' 

This  rule  may  be  considered  as  comprehending*  all  the 
preceding  ones  ;  and  it  will  also  apply  to  many  forms  of 
sentences,  which  none  of  those  rules  can  be  brought  to 
bear  upon.  Its  generality  may  seem  to  render  it  useless  : 
but  by  ranging  under  it  a  nimiber  of  varied  examples,  we 
shall  perceive  its  utility  ;  and  that  it  is  calculated  to  prove 
the  propriety  or  impropriety  of  many  modes  of  expres- 
sion, which  the  less  general  rules  cannot  determine. 

'  This  dedication  may  serve  for  almost  any  book,  that 
has,  is,  or  shall  be  published.'  It  ought  to  be,  '  that  has 
been,  or  shall  be  published.'  *  He  was  guided  by  inter- 
ests always  different,  sometimes  contrary  to,  those  of  the 
<:ommunity  ;'  *  different  from  ;'  or,  '  always  different 
from  those  of  the  community,  and  sometimes  contraiy  to 
them.'  '  Will  it  be  urged  that  these  books  are  as  old,  or 
even   older   than   tradition  V    The   words,   *  as  old,'  and 

*  older,'  cannot  have  a  common  regimen  ;  it  should  be, 
'  as  old  as  tradition,  or  even  older.'  *  It  requires  few  tal- 
ents to  which  most  men  are  not  born,  or  at  least  may 
not  acquire  ;'  '  or  which,  at  least,  they  may  not  acquire.* 

*  The  court  of  chancery  frequently  mitigates  and  breaks 
the  teeth  of  the  common  law.'  In  this  construction,  the 
first  verb  is  said,  '  to  mitigate  the  teeth  of  the  common 
law,*  w4uch  is  an  evident  solecism.  <  Mitigates  the  com- 
mon law,  and  breaks  the  teeth  of  it,'  would  have  been 
grammatical. 

'  They  presently  grow  into  good  humour,  and  good  lan- 
guage towards  the  crown ;'  '  grow  into  good  language,' 
is  very  improper.  '  There  is  never  wanting  a  set  of  evil 
instruments,  who  either  out  of  mad  zeal,  private  hatred,  or 
filthy  lucre,  are  always  ready,'  Sec.  We  say  properly,  'A 
man  acts  jout  of  mad  zeal,'  or,  'out  of  private  hatred  j'  but 


Rule  22.)  SYNTAX,  195 

we  cannot  say,  if  we  would  speak^  English,  '  he  acts  out  of 
filthy  lucre/  '  To  double  her  kindness  and  caresses  of 
me  ;*  the  word  <  kindness'  requires  to  be  followed  by  either 
to  or  for,  and  cannot  be  construed  with  the  preposition  of. 
*  Never  was  man  so  teased,  or  suffered  half  the  uneasiness, 
as  I  have  done  this  evening :'  the  first  and  third  clauses, 
viz.  *  Never  was  man  so  teased,  as  I  have  done  this  even- 
ing,' cannot  be  joined  without  an  impropriety ;  and  to 
connect  the  second  and  third,  the  word  that  must  be  sub- 
Tstituted  for  as;  '  Or  suffered  half  the  uneasiness  that  I  have 
done ;'  or  else, '  half  so  much  uneasiness  as  I  have  suffered.* 

The  first  part  of  the  following  sentence  abounds  with 
adverbs,  and  those  such  as  are  hardly  consistent  with  one 
another:  ' Hoiv  much  soever  the  reformation  of  this  de- 
generate age  is  almost  utterly  to  be  despaired  of,  we  may 
yet  have  a  more  comfortable  prospect  of  future  times/ 
The  sentence  would  be  more  correct  in  the  following 
form :  '  Though  the  reformation  of  this  degenerate  age  is 
nearly  to  be  despaired  of,'  Sec. 

*Oh !  shut  not  up  my  soul  with  the  sinners,  nor  my  life 
with  the  blood-thirsty ;  in  whose  hands  is  wickedness,  and 
their  right  hand  is  full  of  gifts.'  As  the  passage,  introdu- 
ced by  the  copulative  conjunction  and,  was  not  intended 
as  a  continuation  of  the  principal  and  independent  part  of 
the  sentence,  but  of  the  dependent  part,  the  relative  whose 
should  have  been  used  instead  of  the  possessive  their; 
viz.  '  and  tv^hose  right-hand  is  full  of  gifts.' 

*  Eye  hath  not  seen,  nor  ear  heard,  neither  have  entered 
into  the  heart  of  man,  the  things  which  God  hath  prepar- 
ed for  them  that  love  him/  There  seems  to  be  an  im- 
propriety in  this  sentence,  in  which  the  same  noun  serves 
in  a  double  capacity,  performing  at  the  same  time  the  of- 
fices both  of  the  nominative  and  objective  cases.  *  Neither 
hath  it  entered  into  the  heart  of  man,  to  conceive  the 
things,'  Sec.  would  have  been  regular. 

*  We  have  the  power  of  retaining,  altering,  and  com- 
pounding, those  images  which  we  have  once  received, 
into  all  the  varieties  of  picture  and  vision.'  It  is  very  prop- 
er to  say,  *  altering  and  compounding  those  "images  which 
we  have  once  received,  into  all  the  varieties  of  picture 
and  vision ;'  but  we  can  with  no  propriety  say,  '  retaining 


196  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

them  into  all  the  varieties  ;*  and  yet,  accordinj^  to  the 
manner  in  which  the  words  are  ranged,  this  construction 
is  unavoidable  :  for  <  retaining,  altering,  and  compound- 
ing,* are  participles,  each  of  which  equally  refers  to,  and 
governs  the  subsequent  noun,  those  images  ;  and  that  noun 
again  is  necessarily  connected  with  the  following  preposi- 
tion, ifito.  The  construction  might  easily  have  been  recti- 
fied, by  disjoining  the  participle  retaining  from  the  other 
two  participles,  in  this  way  :  '  We  have  the  power  of  re- 
taining those  images  which  we  have  once  received,  and  of 
altering  and  compounding  them  into  all  the  varieties  of 
picture  and  vision  ;'  or,  perhaps,  better  thus  :  '  We  have 
the  power  of  retaining,  altering,  and  compounding  those 
images  which  we  have  once  received,  and  of  forming  them 
into  all  the  varieties  of  picture  and  vision.* 

INTERJECTION. 

For  the   syntax  of  the  Interjection,  See  Rule  v.  I^?ote 
11.  page  138,  and  Note  9  of  Rule  xxi. 


JDIRECTIOA'S  FOR  PARSLXG. 
As  we  have  finished  the  explanation  of  the  different 
parts  of  speech,  and  the  rules  for  forming  them  into  sen- 
tences, it  is  now  proper  to  give  some  examples  of  the 
manner  in  which  the  learners  should  be  exercised,  in  or- 
der to  prove  their  knowledge,  and  to  render  it  familiar  to 
them.  This  is  called  parsing.  The  nature  of  the  suIj- 
ject,  as  well  as  the  adaptation  of  it  to  learners,  requires  that 
it  should  be  divided  into  two  parts  ;  viz.  parsing,  as  it  re- 
spects etymology  alone  ;  and  parsing,  as  it  respects  both 
etymology  and  syntax.* 

SECTION  1. 

SPECIMEN  OF  ETYMOLOGICAL  PARSING. 

*  Virtue  ennobles  us? 
Virtue  is  a  common  substantive  of  the  third  person,  the 
singular  number,  and  in  the  nominative  case      (Decline 
the  noun.)     Ennobles  is  a  regular  verb  active,  indicative 

*  See  the  *  General  Du'ections  for  using  the  English  Exercises,' 
prefixed  to  the  Eig;hth  and  evsry  subsequent  edition  of  that  book. 


SYNTAX.  197 

mood,  present  tense,  and  the  third  person  singular.  (Re- 
peat  the  firesent  tense^  the  imperfect  tense,  and  the  perfect 
participle*  J  Us  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  first  person 
plural,  and  in  the  objective  case.  (Decline  the  pronoun.) 
<  Goodness  rdll  be  rewarded* 

Goodness  is  a  common  substantive,  of  the  third  person, 
the  singular  number,  and  in  the  nominative  case.  (De- 
cline it.)  Will  be  rewarded  is  a  regular  verb,  in  the  pas- 
sive voice,  the  indicative  mood,  the  first  future  tense,  and 
the  third  person  singular.  (Repeat  the  present  tense^  the 
imperfect  tense^  and  the  perfect  participle.) 
*  Strive  to  improve* 

Strive  is  an  irregular  verb  neuter,  in  the  imperative 

mood,  and  of  the  second  person  singular.     (Repeat  the 

present  tense,  ijfc.)      To  improve  is  a  regular  verb  neuter, 

and  in  the  infinitive  mood.  (Repeat  the  present  tense,  ^c.) 

'  Time  fie  s,  0  I  how  swiftly.* 

Time  is  a  common  substantive,  of  the  third  person,  the 
singular  number,  and  in  the  nominative  case.  (Decline 
the  noun.)  Flies  is  an  irregular  verb  neuter,  the  indica- 
tive mood,  present  tense,  and  the  third  person  singular. 
(Repeat  the  present  tense,  ^c.)  O  !  is  an  interjection. 
How  and  swiftly  are  adverbs. 

<  Gratitude  is  a  delightful  emotion.* 

Gratitude  is  a  common  substantive  of  the  third  person, 
the  singular  number,  and  in  the  nominative  case.  (De- 
cline it.)  Is  is  an  irregular  verb  neuter,  indicative  mood, 
present  tense,  and  the  third  person  singular.  (Repeat 
the  present  tens-e,  Is'c.)  A  is  the  indefinite  article.  De- 
lightful is  an  adjective  in  the  positive  state.  (Repeat  the 
degrees  of  comparison.)  Mmotion  is  a  common  substan- 
tive of  the  thii-d  person,  the  singular  number,  and  in  the 
nominative  case.     (Decline  it.) 

*  They  who  forgive,  act  nobly.* 

They  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  third  person,  the 
plural  number,  and  in  the  nominative  case.  (Decline  it.) 
Who  is  a  relative  pronoun,  and  the  nominative  case.  (De- 
cline it.)     Forgive  is  an  irregular  verb  active,  indicative 

*  The  learner  should  occasionally  repeat  all  the  moods  and 
teases  of  the  verb. 

R3 


198  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.' 

mood,  present  tense,  and  the  third  person  plural,  f /t>- 
fieat  the  present  tense^  t^c.J  Act  is  a  regular  verb  active, 
indicative  mood,  present  tense,  and  the  third  person  plu- 
ral. ( Repeat^  ^c.)  Abd/?/ is  an  adverb  of  quality.  (Re- 
peat the  degrees  of  comparison.) 

<  By  living  temperately^  our  health  is  promoted* 

By  is  a  preposition.  Living  is  the  present  participle  of 
the  regular  neuter  verb  <  to  live.*  (Repeat  the  partici- 
ples,) Temperately  is  an  adverb  of  quality.  Our  is  an 
adjective  pronoun  of  the  possessive  kind.  (Decline  it.) 
Health  is  a  common  substantive,  of  the  third  person,  the 
singular  number,  and  in  the  nominative  case.  (Decline 
it.)  Is  promoted  is  a  regular  verb  passive,  indicative 
mood,  present  tense,  and  the  third  person  singular.  (Re- 
peat^ ^c.) 

^  We  should  be  kind  to  them^  ivho  are  unkind  to  us.' 

We  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  first  person,  the  pliJ- 
ral  number,  and  in  the  nominative  case.  (Decline  it.) 
Should  be  is  an  irregular  verb  neuter,  in  the  potential 
mood,  the  imperfect  tense,  and  the  first  person  plural. 
( Repeat  the  present  tense,  life.)  Kind  is  an  adjective,  in 
the  positive  state.  (Repeat  the  degrees  of  comparison.) 
To  is  a  preposition.  The7n  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the 
third  person,  the  plural  number,  and  in  the  objective  case. 
(Decline  it.)  Who  is  a  relative  pronoun,  and  hi  the  no- 
minative case.  (Decline  it.)  Are  is  an  irregular  verb 
neuter,  indicative  mood,  present  tense,  and  the  third  per- 
son plural.  (Repeat,  Isfc.)  Unkind  is  an  adjective  in  the 
positive  state.  (Repeat  the  degrees  of  comparison.)  To 
is  a  preposition.  Us  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  first 
person,  the  plural  number,  and  in  the  objective  case. 
(Decline  it.) 

SECTION  2. 

SPECIMEN    OF    SY5JTACTICAL    JARSING. 

*  Vice  produces  misery' 

Vice  is  a  common  substantive,  of  the  third  person,  the 

singular  number,,  and  in  the  nominative  case.     Produces 

is  a   regular  verb  active,  indicative   mood,  present  tense, 

{lie  third  person  singular,  agreeing  with  its  nomini^ve 


SYNTAXv  199' 

^  vice,'  according  to  rule  i.  which  says  ;  fhere  repeat 
the  rule.)  Misery  is  a  common  substantive,  of  the  third 
person,  the  singular  number,  and  the  objective  case  go- 
verned by  the  active  verb  '  produces,'  according  to  rule 
XI,  which  says,  See. 

*  Peace  and  joy  are  virtue*s  crown.* 

Peace  is  a  common  substantive.  (Refieat  the  fierson, 
number.^  and  case.)  And  is  a  copulative  conjunction.  ,  Joy 
is  a  common  substantive.  (Refieat  the  person^  number^ 
and  case.)  Are  is  an  irregular  verb  neuter,  indicative 
mood,  present  tense,  and  the  third  person  phiral,  agree- 
ing with  the  nominative  case  '  peace  and  joy,'  according 
to  RULE  II.  which  says  ;  (here  repeat  the  rule.)  Virtue's 
is  a  common  substantive,  of  the  third  person,  the  singu- 
lar number,  and  in  the  possessive  case,  governed  by  the 
substantive  *  crown,*  agreeably  to  rule  x.  which  says, 
&c.  Crown  is  a  common  substantive,  of  the  third  person, 
the  singular  number,  and  in  the  nominative  case,  accord- 
ing to  the  fourth  note  of  rule  xi. 

*  Wisdom  or  folly  governs  us.* 

TVisdoin  is  a  common  substantive.  (Repeat  the  person^ 
number^  and  case.)  Or  is-a  disjunctive  conjunction.  Folly 
is  a  common  substantive.  (Repeat  the  person^  number^ 
and  case.)  Governs  is  a  regular  verb  active,  indicative 
mood,  present  tense,  and  the  third  person  singular,  agree* 
ing  with  its  nominative  case  '  wisdom*  or  '  folly,*  accord- 
ing to  rule  III.  which  says,  &c.  Us  is  a  personal  pro- 
noun, of  the  first  person,  plural  number,  and  in  the  ob- 
jective case,  governed  by  the  active  verb  '  governs,'  accord- 
ing to  rule  XI.  which  says,  &:c. 

'  Every  heart  knows  its  sorrows.' 

Every  is  an  adjective  pronoun  of  the  distributive  kind, 
agreeing  with  its  substantive  *  heart,'  according  to  Notei*-, 
under  rule  viii.  which  says,  &c.  Heart  is  a  common 
substantive.  (Repeat  the  person^  nu?nber,  and  case.) 
Knows  is  an  irregular  verb  active,  indicative  mood,  pre- 
sent tense,  third  person  singular,  agreeing  with  its  nomi- 
native case  '  heart,'  according  to  rule  i.  which  says,  Sec. 
Its  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  third  person  singular, 
and  of  the  neuter  gender,  to  agree  with  its  substantive 
;  heart;'  ;\ccording  to  buli:  y,  which  says,  S^c,  it  is  in  the 


■^ 


200  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR." 

possessive  case,  governed  by  the  noun  '  sorrows,*  accord- 
ing to  RULE  X.  which  says,  &c.  Sorrows  is  a  common 
substantive,  of  the  thii'd  person,  the  plural  number,  and 
the  objective  case  governed  by  the  active  verb  *  knows,* 
according  to  rule  xi.  which  says,  Sec. 

^  The  man  is  hapfiy  who  lives  wisely* 

The  is  the  definite  article.  Man  is  a  common  substan- 
tive. (Repeat  the  person,,  number ^  and  case.)  Is  is  an 
irregular  verb  neuter,  indicative  mood,  present  tense,  and 
the  third  person  singular,  agreeing  with  the  nominative 
case  '  man,*  according  to  rule  i.  which  says,  Sec.  Happy 
is  an  adjective  in  the  positive  state.  Who  is  a  relative 
pronoun,  which  has  for  its  antecedent,  *  man,'  with  which 
it  agrees  in  gender  and  number,  according  to  rule  v. 
which  says,  &c.  Lives  is  a  regular  verb  neuter,  indica- 
tive mood,  present  tense,  third  person  singular,  agreeing 
with  its  nominative  'who,'  according  to  rule  vi.  which 
says,  Sec.  Wisely  is  an  adverb  of  quality,  placed  after  the 
verb,  according  to  rule  x v. 

'  Who  preserves  us  ?* 

Who  is  a  relative  pronoun  of  the  interrogative  kind,  and 
in  the  nominative  case  singular.  The  word  to  which  it 
relates,  (its  subsequent)  is  the  noun  or  pronoun  contain- 
ing the  answer  to  the  question  ;  according  to  a  note  under 
rule  VI.  Presei-ves  is  a  regular  verb  active,  indicative 
mood,  present  tense,  third  person  singular,  agreeing  with 
its  nominative  '  who,'  according  to  rule  vi.  which  says, 
Sec.  Us  is  a  personal  pronoun.  (Repeat  theperson^  nuni" 
ber^  case^  atzd  rule.  J 

*  Whose  house  is  that  ?  My  brother's  and  mine.      Who 
inhabit  it  ?   We.* 

Whose  is  a  relative  pronoun  of  the  interrogative  kind, 
and  relates  to  the  following  words, '  brother's'  and  '  mine,* 
agreeably  to  a  note  under  rule  vi.  It  is  in  the  possessive 
case,  governed  by  *  house,'  according  to  rule  x.  which 
says,  &c.  House  is  a  common  substantive.  (Repeat  the 
person,  number,  and  case.)  Is  is  an  irregular  verb  neuter, 
indicative  mood,  present  tense,  and  the  third  person  sin- 
gular, agreeing  with  its  nominative  case  *  house,*  accord- 
ing to  RULE  I.  which  says,  See.  That  is  an  adjective  pro- 
noun of  the  demonstrative  kind.    My  is  an  adjective  pro» 


SYNTAK.  201 

noun  of  the  possessive  kind.  Brother's  is  a  common  sub- 
stantive, of  the  third  person,  the  singular  number,  and  in 
the  possessive  case,  governed  by  '  house*  understood  ac- 
cording to  RULE  X.  and  a  note  under  rule  vi.  Ajid  is  a 
copulative  conjunction.  Mine  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of 
the  first  person,  the  singular  number,  and  in  the  posses- 
sive case,  according  to  tr  note  under  rule  x.  and  another 
under  rule  vi.  II  ho  is  a  relative  pronoun  of  the  inter- 
rogative kind,  of  the  plural  number,  in  the  nominative 
case,  and  relates  to  '  we'  following,  according  to  a  note 
under  RULE  VI.  Inhabit  is  a  regular  verb  active.  (Re- 
peat  the  mood^  tensfi-^  person^  ^c.J  It  is  a  personal  pro- 
noun, of  the  third  person,  the  singular  number,  and  in  the 
objective  case,  governed  by  the  active  verb  *  inhabit,*  ac- 
cording to  rule  XI.  which  says,  kc.  We  is  a  personal 
pronoun,  of  the  first  person,  the  plural  number,  and  the 
nominative  case  to  the  verb  *  inhabit*  understood.  The 
words  *  inhabit  it*  are  implied  after  *  we,*  agreeably  to  a 
note  under  rule  vi. 

*  Remember  to  assist  the  distressed.* 

Remember  is  a  regular  verb  active,  imperative  mood, 
the  second  person  singular,  and  agrees  with  its  nomina- 
tive case  ^  thou'  understood.  7b  assist  is  a  regular  verb 
active,  in  the  infinitive  mood,  governed  by  the  preceding 
verb  *  remember,'  according  to  rule  xii.  which  says, 
&c.  The  is  the  definite  article.  Distressed  is  an  adjec- 
tive put  substantively.  . 

'  We  are  not  unemployed.* 

We  is  a  personal  pronoun.  (Repeat  the  person^  nunU 
ber^  and  case.)  Are  is  an  irregular  verb  neuter.  (Re- 
peat the  mood,  tense,  person,  iS'c.J  JVot  is  an  adverb  of 
negation  Unemployed!^  an  adjective  in  the  positive  state. 
The  tv/o  negatives  not  and  un,  form  an  aflirmative,  agree- 
ably to  rule  XVI.  which  says.  Sec. 

*  This  bounty  has  relieved  you  and  us  ;  and  has  gratified 
the  donor.* 

This  is  an  adjective  pronoun  of  the  demonstrative  kind. 
Bounty  is  a  common  substantive.  (Repeat  the  person, 
number,  and  case.)  Has  relieved  is  a  regular  verb  active, 
indicative  mood,  perfect  tense,  third  person  singular, 
agreeing  with  its  nominative  <  bounty,*  according  to  R^s 


202  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

I.  "vvhich  says,  &c.  You  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the 
second  person  plural,  and  in  the  objective  case.  (Kcfiea^ 
the  goveriiment  and  rule.)  And  is  a  copulative  conjunc- 
tion. Us  is  a  personal  pronoun,  in  the  objective  case. 
You  and  us  are  put  in  the  same  case,  according  to  rule 
XVIII  which  says,  Sec.  And  is  a  copulative  conjunction. 
.Has  gratified  is  a  regular  verb  active,  indicative  mood, 
perfect  tense,  and  third  person  singular,  agreeing  with  its 
nominative  *  bounty,'  understood.  '  Has  relieved*  and 
*  has  gratified^  are  in  the  same  mood  and  tense,  accord- 
ing to  RULE  XVIII.  which  says,  &c.  The  is  the  definite 
article.  Donor  is  a  common  substantive,  of  the  third' 
person,  the  singular  number,  and  the  objective  case,  go- 
verned by  the  active  verb  *  has  gratified,*  according  to 
RULE  XI.  which  says,  ficc. 

*  He  will  not  be  fiardoned,  unless  he  repent* 

He  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  third  person,  singular 
number,  masculine  gender,  and  in  the  nominative  case. 
Will  be  pardoned  is  a  regular  passive  verb,  indicative 
mood,  first  future  tense,  and  the  third  person  singular, 
agreeing  with  its  nominative  *  he,'  accordmg  to  rule  i. 
and  composed  of  the  auxiliaries  '  will  be,'  and  the  perfect 
participle  '  pardoned.'  JVot  is  a  negative  adverb.  Unless 
is  a  disjunctive  conjunction.  He  is  a  personal  pronoun. 
C Repeat  the  person^  number^  gender^  and  case,)  Repent 
is  a  regular  verb  neuter,  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  the 
present  tense,  the  third  person  singular,  and  agrees  with 
its  nominative  case  '  he,'  according  to  rule  i.  which  says. 
Sec.  It  is  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  because  it  implies  a 
future  sense,  and  denotes  uncertainty  signified  by  the  con- 
junction 'unless,'  agreeably  to  rule  xix,  and  the  notes. 
'  Good  works  being  neglected,  devotion  is  false* 
Good  works  being  neglected,  being  independent  on  the 
rest  of  the  sentence,  is  the  case  absolute,  according  to  th& 
fifth  note  of  rule  i.  Devotion  is  a  common  substantive. 
(Repeat  the  number,  person,  a7id  case.)  Is  is  an  irregular 
verb  neuter.  C Repeat  the  mood,  tense,  person,  i!fc,)  I^'alse 
is  an  adjective  in  the  positive  state,  and  belongs  to  its 
substantive  'devotion'  understood,  agreeably  to  rule  viiit 
which  says,  &c. 


SYNTAX.^  263 

^  'Hie  emperor^  Marcus  JureUus,  ivas  a  ivise  and  virtuous 
firince* 
The  is  the  definite  article.  Emfieror  is  a  common  sub- 
stantive, of  the  third  person,  the  singular  number,  and  in 
the  nominative  case.  Marcus  Jurelhis  is  a  proper  name 
or  substantive,  and  in  tlie  nominative  case,  because  it  is 
put  in  apposition  with  the  substantive  *  emperor,'  agree- 
ably to  the  first  note  of  rule  x.  IVas  is  an  irregular  verb 
neuter,  indicative  mood,  imperfect  tense,  and  the  third 
person  singular,  agreeing  with  its  nominative  case  '  em- 
peror,' according  to  rule  i.  yl  is  the  indefinite  article. 
IVise  is  an  adjective,  and  belongs  to  its  substantive  'prince.* 
^^ncl  is  a  copulative  conjunction.  Virtuouis  is  an  adjective, 
and  belongs,  Sec.  Prince  is  a  common  substantive,  and 
in  the  nominative  case,  agreeably  to  the  fourth  note  of 

RULE  XI. 

'  To  err  is  human* 

To  ervy  is  the  infinitive  mood,  and  the  nominative  case 
to  the  verb  *  is.'  Is  is  an  irregular  verb  neuter,  indicative 
mood,  present  tense,  and  the  third  person  singular,  agree- 
ing with  its  nominative  case  '  to  err,'  according  to  Note  I, 
under  rule  the  first.  Human  is  an  adjective,  and  belongs 
to  its  substantive  '  nature,'  understood,  according  to  rule 
VIII.  which  says,  8cc. 

'  To  countenance  persons  who  are  guilty  of  bad  actions,  is 
but  one  remove  from  actually  committing'  them* 

To  countenance  persons  ivho  are  guilty  of  bad  actions,  is 
part  of  a  sentence,  which  is  the  nominative  case, to  the 
verb  *  is.'  Is  is  an  irregular  verb  neuter,  &c.  agreeing 
■with  the  aforementioned  part  of  a  sentence,  as  its  nomina- 
tive case,  according  to  Note  1,  under  rule  the  first.  But 
is  a  disjunctive  conjunction.  One  is  a  numeral  adjective, 
agreeing  with  its  substantive  '  remove.'  Remove  is  a 
common  substantive,  of  the  third  person,  the  singular 
number,  and  in  the  nominative  case,  according  to  the 
fourth  note  of  rule  xi.  From  is  a  preposition.  Com^ 
emitting  is  the  present  participle  of  the  regular  active  verb 
*  to  commit.'  Them  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  third 
person,  the  plural  number,  and  in  the  objective  case,  gov- 
erned by  the  participle  '  committing,'  agreeably  to  rul^ 
;Xiv.  which  says,  &;c. 


204  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR^ 

^  Let  me  firoceed.^ 

This  sentence,  according  to  the  statement  of  gramma- 
rians in  general,  is  in  the  imperative  mood,  of  the  first 
person,  and  the  singular  number.  The  sentence  may,  how- 
ever, be  analyzed  in  the  following  manner.  Let  is  an  ir- 
regular verb  active,  in  the  imperative  mood,  of  the  second 
person,  the  piural  number,  and  agrees  with  its  nominative 
case  '  you'  understood  :  as  '  do  you  let.'  Me  is  a  personal 
pronoun,  of  ihe  first  person,  the  singular  number,  and  in 
the  objective  case,  governed  by  the  active  verb  'let,'  agree- 
ably to  RULE  XI.  which  says,  £cc.  Proceed  is  a  regular 
verb  neuter,  in  the  infinitive  mood,  governed  by  the 
preceding  verb  *  let,*  according  to  rule  xii.  which 
says,  8cc. 

'  Living  expensively  and  luxuriously  destroys  health.^    *  By 
living  frugally  and  te^nperately^  health  is  firesei-ved.* 

Living  expensively  arid  luxuriously^  is  the  nominative 
case  to  the  verb  'destroys,'  according  to  Note  1,  under 
RULE  I.  Living  frugally  and  temperately^  is  a  substantive 
phrase  in  the  objective  case,  governed  by  the  preposition 
*  by,'  according  to  Note  2,  under  rule  xiv. 

The  preceding  specimens  of  parsing,  if  carefully  stu- 
died by  the  learner,  seem  to  be  sufficiently  explicit,  to 
enable  him  to  comprehend  the  nature  of  this  employ- 
ment ;  and  sufficiently  diversified,  to  qualify  him,  in  other 
exercises,  to  point  out  and  apply  the  remaining  rules, 
both  principal  and  subordinate. 


PART  IV. 

PROSODY. 

Prosody  consists  of  two  parts:    the  former 
teaches    the  true    pronunciation  of  \vords,j 
comprising  accent,    quantity,    emphasis, 
PAUSE,  and  tone  ;  and  the  latter,  the  laws 
VERSinC  ation. 


Accent.)  prosody*  205 

CHAPTER  I. 

©F    PRONUNCIATION. 

SECTION  1. 

Of  Accent. 

Accent  is  the  laying  of  a  peculiar  stress  of 
the  voice,  on  a  certain  letter  or  syllable. in  a  word, 
that  it  may  be  better  heard  than  the  rest,  or  dis- 
tinguished from  them  :  as,  in  the  word  presume^ 
the  stress  of  the  voice  must  be  on  the  letter  w, 
and  second  syllable,  sume,  which  take  the  accent. 

As  words  may  be  formed  of  a  different  number  of  syl- 
lables, from  one  to  eight  or  nine,  it  was  necessary  to  have 
some  peculiar  mark  to  distinguish  words  from  mere  syl- 
lables :  otherwise  speech  would  be  only  a  continued  suc- 
cession of  syllables,  without  conveying  ideas  :  for,  as  words 
are  the  marks  of  ideas,  any  confusion  in  the  marks,  must 
cause  the  same  in  the  ideas  for  which  they  stand.  It  was 
therefore  necessary,  that  the  mind  should  at  once  perceive 
what  number  of  syllables  belongs  to  each  word  in  utterance. 
This  might  be  done  by  a  perceptible  pause  at  the  end  of 
each  word  in  speaking,  as  we  form  a  certain  distance  be- 
tween them  in  writing  and  printing.  But  this  would  make 
discourse  extremely  tedious  ;  and  though  it  might  render 
words  distinct,  would  make  the  meaning  of  sentences  con- 
fused. Syllables  might  also  be  sufficiently  distinguished 
by  a  certain  elevation  or  depression  of  voice  tipon  one  syl- 
lable of  each  word,  which  was  the  practice  of  some  nations. 
But  the  English  tongue  has,  for  this  purpose,  adopted  a 
mark  of  the  easiest  and  simplest  kind,  which  is  called  ac- 
cent, and  which  effectually  answers  the  end. 

Every  word  in  our  language,  of  more  than  one  sylla- 
ble, has  one  of  them  distinguished  from  the  rest  in  this 
manner  ;  and  some  writers  assert,  that  every  monosylla- 
ble of  two  or  more  letters,  has  one  of  its  letters  thus  dis- 
tinguished. 

Accent  is  either  principal  or  secondary.  The  princi- 
pal accent  is  that  which  necessarily  distinguishes  one  syl- 

o 


206  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.""  (ScCt.  1* 

lable  in  a  word  from  the  rest.  The  secondary  accent  is 
that  stress  which  we  may  occasionally  place  upon  another 
syllable,  besides  that  which  has  the  principal  accent  ;  in 
order  to  pronounce  eveiy  part  of  the  word  more  distinct- 
ly, forcibly,  and  harmoniously  :  thus,  <  Complaisant,  car- 
avan,* and  *  violin,*  have  frequently  an  accent  on  the  first 
as  well  as  on  the  last  syllable,  though  a  somewhat  less 
forcible  one.  The  same  may  be  observed  of  *  Repartee, 
referee,  privateer,  domineer,*  8cc.  But  it  must  be  ob- 
served, that  though  an  accent  is  allowed  on  the  first  sylla- 
ble of  these  words,  it  is  by  no  means  necessary  ;  they 
may  all  be  pronounced  with  one  accent,  and  that  on  the 
last  syllable,  without  the  least  deviation  from  propriety. 

As  emphasis  evidently  points  out  the  most  significant 
word  in  a  sentence  ;  so,  where  other  reasons  do  not  for- 
bid, the  accent  always  dwells  with  greatest  force  on  that 
part  of  the  word  which,  from  its  importance,  the  hearer 
has  always  the  greatest  occasion  to  observe  :  and  this  is 
necessarily  the  root  or  body  of  the  word.  But  as  harmony 
of  termination  frequently  attracts  the  accent  from  the  root 
to  the  branches  of  words,  so  the  first  and  most  natural 
law  of  accentuation  seems  to  operate  less  in  fixing  the 
stress  than  any  other.  Our  own  Saxon  terminations,  in- 
deed, with  perfect  uniformity,  leave  the  principal  part  of 
the  word  in  quiet  possession  of  what  seems  its  lawful  pro- 
perty ;  but  Latin  and  Greek  terminations,  of  which  our 
language  is  full,  assume  a  right  of  preserving  their  ori- 
ginal accent,  and  subject  almost  every  word  they  bestow 
upon  us  to  their  own  classical  laws. 

Accent,  therefore,  seems  to  be  regulated  in  a  great 
measure  by  etymology.  In  words  from  the  Saxon,  the 
accent  is  generally  on  the  root ;  in  words  from  the  learn- 
ed languages,  it  is  generally  on  the  termination  ;  and  if 
to  these  we  add  the  different  accent  we  lay  on  some 
words,  to  distinguish  them  from  others,  we  seem  to  have 
the  three  great  principles  of  accentuation  ;  namely,  the 
radical^  the  terminational^  and  the  distinctive.  The  radi- 
cal :  as,  *  Love,  lovely,  loveliness  ;'  the  terminational  : 
as,  *  Harmony,  harmonious  ;*  the  distinctive  :  as,  *  Con- 
vert,  to  convert.* 


Accent.)  pro  sob  v.  207 

ACCENT    ON    DISSYLLABLES. 

Words  of  two  syllables  have  necessarily  one  of  them 
accented,  and  but  one.  It  is  true,  for  the  sake  of  empha- 
sis, we  sometimes  lay  an  equal  stress  upon  two  successive 
syllables ;  as,  '  Di-rect,  some-times  ;*  but  when  these 
words  are  pronounced  alone,  they  have  never  more  than 
one  accent.  The  word  ^  a-men,'  is  the  only  word  which 
is  pronounced  with  two  accents  when  alone. 

Of  dissyllables,  formed  by  affixing  a  termination,  the 
former  syllable  is  commonly  accented :  as,  <  Childish, 
kingdom,  actest,  acted,  toilsome,  lover,  scoffer,  fairer, 
foremost,  zealous,  fulness,  meekly,  artist.' 

Dissyllables  formed  by  prefixing  a  syllable  to  the  radi- 
cal word,  have  commonly  the  accent   on  the  latter  :  as, 

*  To  beseem,  to  bestow,  to  reti'irn.' 

Of  dissyllables,  which  are  at  once  nouns  and  verbs,  the 
verb  has  commonly  the  accent  on  the  latter,  and  the  noun 
on  the  former  syllable :  as,  *  To  cement,  a  cement  ;  to 
contract,  a  contract ;  to  presage,  a  presage.* 

This  rule  has  many  exceptions.  Though  verbs  seldom 
have  their  accent  on  the  former,  yet  nouns  often  have  it 
on  the  latter  syllable  :  as,  ^  Delight,  perfume.'  Those 
nouns  which,  in  the  common  order  of  language,  must  have 
preceded  the  verbs,  often  transmit  their  accent  to  the 
verbs  they  form,  and  inversely.  Thus,  the  noun  '  wi\ter' 
must  have  preceded  the  verb  *  to  w^ter,'  as  the  verb  '  to 
correspond'  must  have  preceded  the  noun  *  correspond- 
ent :'  and  '  to  pursue'  claims  priority  to  *  pursuit.'  So 
that  we  may  conclude,  wherever  verbs  deviate  from  the 
rule,  it  is  seldom  by  chance,  and  generally  in  those  words 
only  where  a  superior  law  of  accent  takes  place. 

AH  dissyllables  ending  in  t/,  our,  oiv,  le,  ish,  ck,  ter^  age, 
en^  et :    as,   '  Cranny,  labour,   willow,   wallow ;'   except 

*  allow,  avow,  endow,  below,  bestow ;'  '  battle,  banish, 
cambric,  batter,  courage,  fasten,  quiet  i'  accent  the  former 
syllable. 

Dissyllable  nouns  in  <?r,  as,  <  Canker,  butter,'  have  the 
accent  on  the  former  syllable. 

Dissyllable  verbs,  terminating  in  a  consonant  and  ^  final, 
as,  '  Comprise,  escape  ;'  or  having  a  diphthong  in  the  last 
syllable,  as,  '  Appease,  reveal ;'  or  ^£ng  in  two  conso» 


208  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  (ScCt.  1. 

nants  j  as,  *  Attend;'  have  the  accents  on  the  latter  sylla- 
ble. 

Dissyllable  nouns,  having  a  diphthong  in  the  latter  syl- 
lable, have  commonly  their  accent  on  the  latter  syllable  ; 
as,  '  Applause  ;*  except  some  words  in  ain  :  as,  <  Villain, 
curtain,  mountain.' 

Dissyllables  that  have  two  vowels,  which  are  separated 
in  the  pronunciation,  have  always  the  accent  on  the  first 
syllable :  as,  '  Lion,  riot,  quiet,  liar,  riiin ;'  except 
'^  create.* 

ACCENT  ON  TRISYLLABLES. 

Trisyllables  formed  by  adding  a  termination,  or  prefix- 
ing a  syllable,  retain  the  accent  of  the  radical  word :  as, 

*  Loveliness,  tenderness,  contemner,  wagoner,  physical, 
bespatter,  commenting,  commending,  assiirance.' 

Trisyllables  ending  in  ous^  al^  ion :  as,  '  Arduous,  capi- 
tal, mention,'  accent  the  first. 

Trisyllables  ending  in  ce,  ent^  and  ate^  accent  the  first 
syllable  ;  as,  '  Countenpjice,  continence,  Armament,  im- 
minent, elegant,  propagate  ;'  unless  they  are  derived  from 
v/ords  having  the  accent  on  the  last :  as,  *  Connivancy, 
acquaintance  ;'  and  unless  the  middle  syllable  has  a  vowel 
before  two  consonants  ;  as,  '  Promulgate.' 

Trisyllables  ending  in  i/,  as,  '  Entity,  specify,  liberty, 
victory,  subsidy,'  commonly  accent  the  first  syllable. 
Trisyllables  in  re  or  /e,  accent  the  first  syllable  ;  as, 

*  Legible,  theatre  ;'  except  '  Disciple,*  and  some  words 
which  have  a  preposition  ;  as,  '  Example,  indenture.' 

Trisyllables  ending  in  ude^  commonly  accent  the  first 
syllable  ;  as,  *  Plenitude,  habitude,  rectitude.* 

Trisyllables  ending  in  ator^  have  the  accent  on  the  mid- 
dle syllable ;  as,  *  Spectator,  creator,*  &c.  except  orator, 
senator,  barrator,  legator.' 

Trisyllables  which  have  in  the  middle  syllable  a  diph- 
thong, as,  *  Endeavour ;'  or  a  vowel  before  two  conso- 
nants ;  as,  '  Domestic  ;'  accent  the  middle  syllable. 

Trisyllables  that  have  their  accent  on  the  last  syllable, 
are  commonly  French  :  as,  *  Acquiesce,  repartee,  maga- 
zine ;'  or  they  are  words  fomaed  by  prefixing  one  or  two 
syllables  to  a  long  syllable  ;  as,  *  Immatiire,  overcharge,* 


Accent.)  prosody.  209 

ACCENT  ON  POLYSYLLABLES. 

Polysyllables,  or  words  of  more  than  three  syllables, 
generally  follow  the  accent  of  the  words  from  which  they 
are  derived  :  as,  '  arrogating,  continency,  incontinently, 
commendable,  communicableness* 

Words  ending  in  ator^  have  the  accent  generally  on  the 
penultimate,  or  last  syllable  but  one  ;  as,  *  Emendator, 
gladiator,  equivocator,  prevaricator.' 

Words  ending  in  /e,  commonly  have  the  accent  on  the 
first  syllable  ;  as,  '  amicable,  despicable  ;'  unless  the  se- 
cond syllable  has  a  vowel  before  two  consonants :  as, 
'  Combi'istible,  condemnable.' 

Worils  ending  in  ion,  ous,  and  ty,  have  their  accent  on 
the  antepenultimate,  or  last  syllable  but  two  ;  as,  *  Salva- 
tion, victorious,  activity/ 

Words  which  end  in  ia,  io,  and  ca/,  have  the  accoBt  on 
the  antepenult  :  as,  '  Cyclopaedia,  punctilio,  despotical.* 

The  rules  respecting  accent,  are  not  advanced  as  com- 
plete or  infallible,  but  proposed  as  useful.  Almost  every 
rule  of  every  language  has  its  exceptions  ;  and,  in  En- 
glish, as  in  other  tongues,  much  must  be  learned  by  ex- 
ample and  authority. 

It  may  be  further  observed,  that  though  the  syllable  on 
which  the  principal  accent  is  placed,  is  fixed  and  certain, 
yet  we  may,  and  do,  frequently  make  the  secondary  prin- 
cipal, and  the  principal  secondary  ;  thus,  '  Caravan,  com- 
plaisant, violin,  repartee,  referee,  privateer,  domineer,* 
may  all  have  the  greater  stress  on  the  first,  and  the  less 
on  the  last  syllable,  without  any  violent  offence  to  the  ear : 
nay,  it  may  be  asserted,  that  the  principal  accent  an  the 
first  syllable  of  these  words,  and  none  at  all  on  the  last, 
though  certainly  improper,  has  nothing  in  it  grating  or  dis- 
cordant ;  but  placing  an  accent  on  the  second  syllable  of 
these  words  would  entirely  derange  them,  and  produce  a 
great  harshness  and  dissonance.  The  same  observations 
may  be  applied  to  '  demonstration,  lamentation,  provoca- 
tion, navigator,  propagator,  alligator,'  and  every  similar 
word  in  the  language. 


B2 


210  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR^  (Scct.  2. 

SECTION  2. 

Of  Quantity. 

The  quantity  of  a  syllable  is  that  time  which 
is  occupied  in  pronouncing  it.     It  is  considered 

as  LONG  or  SHORT. 

A  vowel  or  syllable  is  long,  when  the  accent 
is  on  the  vowxl ;  which  occasions  it  to  be  slowly 
joined  in  pronunciation  with  the  following  let- 
ters :  as,  '  Fall,  bale,  mood,  house,  feature.' 

A  syllable  is  short,  when  the  accent  is  on  the 
consonant;  which  occasions  the  vowel  to  be 
quickly  joined  to  the  succeeding  letter  :  as,  *  ant, 
bonnet,  hunger.' 

A  long  syllable  generally  requires  double  the 
time  of  a  short  one  in  pronouncing  it ;  thus, 
*  Mate'  and  '  N5te'  should  be  pronounced  as 
slowly  again  as  '  Mat'  and   '  Not.' 

o 

Unaccented  syllables  are  generally  short :  as, '  Admire, 
boldness,  sinner.*  But  to  this  rule  there  are  many  excep- 
uons  :  as,  '  also,  exile,  gangrene,  umpire,  foretaste,'  &c. 

When  the  accent  is  on  a  consonant,  the  syllable  is  of- 
ten more  or  less  short,  as  it  ends  with  a  single  consonant, 
or  with  more  than  one  :  as,  *  Sadly,  robber  ;  persist, 
matchless.* 

When  the  accent  is  on  a  semi-vowel,  the  time  of  the 
reliable  may  be  protracted,  by  dwelling  upon  the  semi- 
vowel :  as,  '  Cur',  can',  fulfil'  :'  but  when  the  accent  falls 
on  a  mute,  the  syllable  cannot  be  lengthened  in  the  same 
manner  :  as,  '  Bubble,  captain,  totter.* 

The  quantity  of  vowels  has,  in  some  measure,  been 
considered  under  the  first  part  of  grammar,  which  treats 
of  the  different  sounds  of  the  letters ;  and  therefore  we 
shall  dismiss  this  subject  with  a  few  general  rules  and 
observations. 

1st.  All  vowels  under  the  principal  accent,  before  the 
terminations  ia^  io^  and  ion^  preceded  by  a  single  conso- 


Emphasis.)       *        prosody.  211 

nant,  are  pronounced  long  :  as,  *  Regalia,  folio,  adhesion, 
explosion,  confusion  :*  except  the  vowel  z,  which  in  that 
situation  is  short  :  as,  *  Militia,  punctilio,  decision,  con- 
trition.' The  only  exceptions  to  this  rule  seem  to  be 
'  Discretion,  battalion,  gladiator,  national,  and  rational.* 

2d.  All  vowels  that  immediately  precede  the  termina- 
tions ity^  and  etyy  are  pronounced  long  :  as,  '  Deity,  piety, 
spontaneity.'  But  if  one  consonant  precedes  these  termi- 
nations, every  preceding  accented  vowel  is  short ;  except 
«,  and  the  a  in  *  scarcity,*  and  '  rarity  ;*  as,  *  Polarity,  se- 
verity, divinity,  curiosity  ; — impunity.*  Even  u  before 
two  consonants  contracts  itself:  as,  *  Curvity,  tacitur- 
nity,* 8cc. 

3d.  Vowels  under  the  principal  accent,  before  the  ter- 
minations ic  and  ical^  preceded  by  a  single  consonant,  are 
pronounced  short  ;  thus,  *  Satanic,  pathetic,  elliptic,  har- 
monic,' have  th^  vowel  short ;  while  '  Tunic,  runic,  cu- 
bic,' have  the  accented  vowel  long  :  and  '  Fanatical,  poeti- 
cal, levitical,  canonical,'  have  the  vowel  short ;  but  *  Cu- 
bical, musical,'  Sec.  have  the  u  long. 

4th.  The  vowel  in  the  antepenultimate  syllable  of 
words,  with  the  following  terminations,  is  always  pro- 
nounced short. 

loquy  ;  as,  obloquy.  parous  ;  as,  oviparous. 

strophe;  as,  apostrophe.         cracy  ;  as,  aristocracy. 

meter  ;  as,  barometer.  gony  ;  as,  cosmogony. 

gonal ;  as,  diagonal.  phony  ;  as,  symphony. 

■vorous  ;  as,  carnivorous.         riomy  ;  as,  astronomy. 

ferous  ;  as,  somniferous.        tomy  ;  as,  anatomy. 

Jluous  ;  as,  superfluous.  pathy  ;  as,  antipathy. 

Jluent ;  as,  mellifluent. 

As  no  utterance  which  is  void  of  proportion,  can  be 
agreeable  to  the  ear ;  and  as  quantity,  or  proportion  of 
time  in  utterance,  greatly  depends  on  a  due  attention  to 
the  accent  ;  it  is  absolutely  necessary  for  every  person 
who  would  attain  a  just  and  pleasing  delivery,  to  be  mas- 
ter of  that  point.  -— — 

SECTION  3. 
Of  Emphasis. 

By  emphasis  is  meant  a  stronger  and  fuller 
sound  of  voice,  by  which  we  distinguish  some 


212  EN-GirSH    GRAMMAR.  (ScCt.  3, 

word  or  words  on  which  we  design  to  lay  par- 
ticular stress,  and  to  show  how  they  affect  the 
rest  of  the  sentence.  Sometimes  the  emphatic 
words  must  be  distinguished  by  a  particular  tone 
of  voice,  as  well  as  by  a  greater  stress. 

On  the  right  management  of  the  emphasis  depends  the 
life  of  pronunciation.  If  no  emphasis  be  placed  on  any 
words,  not  only  will  discourse  be  rendered  heavy  and  life- 
less, but  the  meaning  often  left  ambiguous.  If  the  em- 
phasis be  placed  wrong,  we  shall  pervert  and  confound 
the  meaning  wholly.  To  give  a  common  instance  :  such 
a  simple  question  as  this,  *  Do  you  ride  to  town  to-day  ?' 
is  capable  of  no  fewer  than  four  different  acceptations,  ac- 
cording as  the  emphasis  is  differently  placed  on  the  words. 
If  it  be  pronounced  thus  ;  '  Do  you  ride  to  town  to-day  ?* 
the  answer  may  naturally  be,  '  No,  we  send  a  servant  in 
our  stead.*  If  thus  ;  ^  Do  you  ride  to  town  to-day  ?'  an- 
swer, *  No,  we  intend  to  walk.*  *  Do  you  ride  to  town  to- 
day ?*  *  No,  we  ride  into  the  country.*  '  Do  you  ride  to 
town  to-day  ?*  *  No,  but  we  shall  to-morrow.*  In  like 
manner,  in  solemn  discourse,  the  whole  force  and  beauty 
of  an  expression  often  depend  on  the  emphatic  word  ;  and 
we  may  present  to  the  hearers  quite  different  views  of  the 
same  sentiment,  by  placing  the  emphasis  differently.  In 
the  following  words  of  our  Saviour,  observe  in  what  dif- 
ferent lights  the  thought  is  placed,  according  as  the  words 
are  pronounced  '  Judas,  betrayest  thou  the  son  of  man 
with  a  kiss  ?*  ^  Betrayest  thou,'  makes  the  reproach  turn 
on  the  infamy  of  treachery.  *  Betrayest  thou^*  makes  it 
rest  upon  Judcis*s  connexion  with  his  master.  *  Betrayest 
thou  the  son  of  man^  rests  it  upon  our  Saviour's  personal 
character  and  eminence.  '  Betrayest  thou  the  son  of  man 
nvith  a  kiss  P*  turns  it  upon  his  prostituting  the  signal  of 
peace  and  friendship  to  the  purpose  of  destruction. 

The  emphasis  often  lies  on  the  word  that  asks  a  ques- 
tion :  as,  '  Who  said  so  ?*  *  When  will  he  come  ?'  *  TVhat 
shall  I  do  ?'  '  Whither  shall  I  go  ?'  *  Why  dost  thou  weep  ?* 
And  when  two  words  are  set  in  contrast,  or  in  opposition 
to  one  another,  they  are  both  emphulic  j  as,  '  He  is  the 


Emphasis.)  prosody.  213 

tyrant^  not  the  father,  of  his  people;'  *  His  subjects /far 
him,  but  they  do  not  love  him.* 

Some  sentences  are  so  full  and  comprehensive,  that 
almost  every  word  is  emphatical ;  as,  '  Ye  hills  and  dales, 
ye  rivers,  woods,  and  plains  :*  or,  as  that  emphatic  expos- 
tulation in  the  prophecy  of  Ezekiel,  *  Why  will  ye  die  1* 
In  the  latter  short  sentence  every  word  is  emphatical ; 
and  on  whichever  word  we  lay  the  emphasis,  whether  on 
the  first,  second,  third,  or  fourth,  it  strikes  out  a  different 
sense,  and  opens  a  new  subject  of  moving  expostulation. 

As  accent  dignifies  the  syllable  on  which  it  is  laid,  and 
makes  it  more  distinguished  by  the  ear  than  the  rest ;  so 
emphasis  ennobles  the  word  to  which  it  belongs,  and  pre- 
sents it  in  a  stronger  light  to  the  understanding.  Were 
there  no  accents,  words  would  be  resolved  into  their  ori- 
ginal syllables  :  were  there  no  emphasis,  sentences  would 
be  resolved  into  their  original  words ;  and,  in  this  case, 
the  hearer  would  be  under  the  painful  necessity,  first,  of 
making  out  the  words,  and  afterwards,  their  meaning. 

Emphasis  is  of  two  kinds,  simple  and  complex.  Sim- 
ple, when  it  serves  to  point  out  only  the  plain  meaning  of 
any  proposition  ;  complex,  when,  besides  the  meaning,  it 
marks  also  some  affection  or  em^otion  of  the  mind ;  or 
gives  a  meaning  to  words,  which  they  would  not  have  in 
their  usual  acceptation.  In  the  former  case,  empliasis  is 
scarcely  more  than  a  stronger  accent,  with  little  or  no 
change  of  tone  :  when  it  is  complex,  besides  force,  there 
is  always  superadded  a  manifest  change  of  tone. 

The  following  sentence  contains  an  example  of  simple 
emphasis :  *  And  Nathan  said  to  David,  '  Thou  art  the 
man.'  The  emphasis  on  thou,  serves  only  to  point  out 
the  meaning  of  the  speaker.  But  in  the  sentence  which 
follows,  we  perceive  an  emotion  of  the  speaker  superad- 
ded to  the  simple  meaning  :  'Why  will  ye  die  ?' 

As  the  emphasis  often  falls  on  words  in  different  parts 
of  the  same  sentence,  so  it  is  frequently  required  to  be 
continued,  with  a  little  variation,  on  two,  and  sometimes 
three  words  together.  The  following  sentence  exempli- 
fies both  the  parts  of  this  position  :  '  If  you  seek  to  make 
one  rich,  study  not  to  increase  his  stores  but  to  diminish 
hii  desires  *     Emphasis  may  be  further  distinguished;  int© 


214  ENGLISH    GRAMilAR.  (Sect.  3, 

the  weaker  and  the  stronger  emphasis.  In  the  sentence, 
*  Exercise  and  temperance  strengthen  the  constitution  ;* 
we  perceive  more  force  on  the  word  strengthen^  than  on 
any  other  ;  though  it  is  not  equal  to  the  stress  which  we 
apply  to  the  word  indifferent,  in  the  following  sentence  : 
'  Exercise  and  temperance  strengthen  even  an  indifferent 
constitution.*  It  is  also  proper  to  remark,  that  the  words 
exercise,  temjierance,  constitution,  in  the  last  example  but 
one,  are  pronounced  with  greater  force,  than  the  particles 
and  and  the  ;  and  yet  those  words  cannot  properly  be  cal- 
led emphatical :  for  the  stress  that  is  laid  on  them,  is  no 
more  than  sufficient  to  convey  distinctly  the  meaning  of 
each  word. — From  these  observations  it  appears,  that  the 
smaller  parts  of  speech,  namely,  the  articles,  conjunctions, 
prepositions.  Sec.  are,  in  general,  obscurely  and  feebly  ex- 
pressed ;  that  the  substantives,  verbs,  and  more  significant 
words,  are  firmly  and  distinctly  pronounced  ;  and  that  the 
emphatical  words,  those  which  mark  the  meaning  of  a 
phrase,  are  pronounced  with  peculiar  stress  and  energy, 
though  varied  according  to  the  degree  of  their  importance. 
Emphasis,  besides  its  other  offices,  is  the  great  regula- 
tor of  quantity.  Though  the  quantity  of  our  syllables  is 
fixed,  in  words  separately  pronounced,  yet  it  is  mutable, 
when  these  words  are  ranged  in  sentences  ;  the  long 
being  changed  into  short,  the  short  into  long,  according  to 
the  importance  of  the  words  with  regard  to  meaning  :  and 
as  it  is  by  emphasis  only,  that  the  meaning  can  be  pointed 
out,  emphasis  must  be  the  regulator  of  the  quantity.  A 
few  examples  will  make  this  point  veiy  evident. 

Pleas'd  thoti  shalt  hear— and  learn  the  secretpower,  &c. 
Pleas'd  thou  shalt  hear — and  thou  alone  shalt  hear — 
Pleased  thou  shalt  hear — in  spite  of  them  shalt  hear— 
Pleas'd  thou  shalt  hear — though  not  behold  the  fair- 
In  the  first  of  these  instances,  the  words  pleas'd  and 
hear,  being  equally  emphatical,  are  both  long  ;  whilst  the 
two  intermediate  words,  thou  and  shalt,  being  rapidly  pass- 
ed over,  as  the  sense  demands,  are  reduced  to  a  short 
quantity. 

In  the  second  instance,  the  word  thou  by  being  the  most 
important,  obtains  the  chief,  or  rather  the  sole  emphasis  ; 
and  thus,  it  is  not  only  restored  to  its  natural  long  quantity, 


JEmphasis.)  prosodv.  215 

but  obtains  from  emphasis  a  still  greater  degree  of  length, 
than  when  pronounced  in  its  separate  state.  This  greater 
degree  of  length,  is  compensated  by  the  diminution  of 
quantity  in  the  words  pleas* d  and  hear^  which  are  sounded 
shorter  than  in  the  preceding  instance.  The  word  shalt 
still  continues  short.  Here  we  may  also  observe,  that 
though  thou  is  long  in  the  first  part  of  the  verse,  it  becomes 
short  when  repeated  in  the  second,  on  account  of  the  more 
forcible  emphasis  belonging  to  the  word  alone^  which  fol- 
lows it. 

In  the  third  instance,  the  word  shalt  having  the  empha- 
sis, obtains  a  long  quantity.  And  though  it  is  impossible 
to  prolong  the  sound  of  this  word,  as  it  ends  in  a  pure 
mute,  yet  in  this,  as  in  all  similar  instances,  the  additional 
quantity  is  to  be  made  out  by  a  rest  of  the  voice,  propor- 
tioned to  the  importance  of  the  word.  In  this  instance, 
we  may  also  observe,  that  the  word  shalt,  repeated  in  the 
second  part  of  the  line,  is  reduced  again  to  a  short  quantity. 

In  the  fourth  instance,  the  word  hear  placed  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  word  behold,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  line,  ob- 
tains from  the  sense  the  chief  emphasis,  and  a  proportion- 
ate length.  The  words  thou  and  shalt,  are  again  reduced 
to  short  quantities  ;  and  the  word  pleased  lends  some  of 
the  time  which  it  possessed,  to  the  more  important  word 
hear. 

From  these  instances,  it  is  evident,  that  the  quantity 
of  our  syllables  is  not  fixed  ;  but  governed  by  emphasis. 
To  observe  a  due  measurement  of  time,  on  all  occasions, 
is  doubtless  very  difficult ;  but  by  instruction,  attention, 
and  practice,  the  difficulty  may  be  overcome. 

Emphasis  changes,  not  only  the  quantity  of  words  and 
syllables,  but  also,  in  particular  cases,  the  seat  of  the  ac- 
cent. This  is  demonstrable  from  the  following  examples. 
*  He  shall  ?';2crease,  but  I  shall  f/Zcrease.*  ^  There  is  a  dif- 
ference between  giving  and  ydrgiving.'  *  In  this  species 
of  composition,  filausihWky  is  much  more  essential  than 
prdbdbiWij*  In  these  examples,  the  emphasis  requires 
the  accent  to  be  placed  on  syllables,  to  which  it  does  not 
commonly  belong. 

In  order  to  acquire  the  proper  management  of  the  em- 
phasis, the  great  rule,  and  indeed  the  only  rule  possible  to 


^k 


216  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR."  (Scct.  4.' 

be  given,  is,  that  the  speaker  or  reader  study  to  attain  a 
just  conception  of  the  force  and  spidt  of  the  sentiments 
which  he  is  to  pronounce.  For  to  iay  the  emphasis  with 
exact  propriety,  is  a  constant  exercise  of  good  sense  and 
attention.  It  is  far  from  being  an  inconsiderable  attam- 
ment.  It  is  one  of  the  greatest  trials  of  a  true  and  just 
taste  ;  and  must  arise  from  feeling  delicately  ourselves, 
and  from  judging  accurately,  of  what  is  fittest  to  strike  the 
feelings  of  others. 

There  is  one  error,  against  which  it  is  particularly  pro- 
per to  caution  the  learner ;  namely,  that  of  multiplying 
emphatical  words  too  much.  It  is  only  by  a  prudent  re- 
serve in  the  use  of  them,  tliat  we  can  give  them  any  weight. 
If  they  recur  too  often  ;  if  a  speaker  or  reader  attempts 
to  render  every  thing  Avhich  he  expresses  of  high  import- 
ance, by  a  multitude  of  strong  emphases,  we  soon  learn  to 
pay  little  regard  to  them.  To  crowd  every  sentence  with 
emphatical  words,  is  like  crowding  all  the  pages  of  a  book 
with  Italic  characters,  which,  as  to  the  effect,  is  just  the 
same  as  to  use  no  such  distinctions  at  all. 

SECTION  4. 

Of  Pauses. 

Pauses  or  rests,  in  speaking  and  reading,  are 
a  total  cessation  of  the  voice,  during  a  percepti- 
ble, and,  in  many  cases,  a  measurable  space  of 
,  time. 

Pauses  are  equally  necessary  to  the  speaker,  and  the 
hearer.  To  the  speaker,  that  he  may  take  breath,  without 
which  he  cannot  proceed  far  in  delivery  ;  and  that  he  may, 
by  these  temporary  rests,  relieve  the  organs  of  speech, 
which  otherwise  would  be  soon  tired  by  continued  action  : 
to  the  hearer,  that  the  ear  also  may  be  relieved  from  the 
fatigue,  which  it  would  otherwise  endure  from  a  continuity 
of  sound,  and  that  the  understanding  may  have  sufficient 
time  to  mark  the  distinction  of  sentences,  and  their  sev- 
eral members. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  pauses  :  first,  emphatical  pau- 
ses :  and  next,  such  as  mark  the  distinctions  of  the  sense. 
An  emphatical  pause  is  made,  after  something  has  been 


Pauses.)  PROSODY.  217 

said  of  peculiar  moment,  and  on  which  we  desire  to  fix 
the  hearer's  attention.  Sometimes,  before  such  a  thing  is 
said,  we  usher  it  in  with  a  pause  of  this  nature.  Such 
pauses  have  the  same  effect  as  a  strong  emphasis :  and 
are  subject  to  the  same  rules  ;  especially  to  the  caution 
just  now  given,  of  not  repeating  them  too  frequently.  For 
as  they  excite  uncommon  attention,  and  of  course  raise  ex- 
pectation, if  the  importance  of  the  matter  is  not  fully  an- 
swerable to  such  expectation,  they  occasion  disappoint- 
ment and  disgust. 

But  the  most  frequent  and  the  principal  use  of  pauses, 
is,  to  mark  the  divisions  of  the  sense,  and  at  the  same  time 
to  allow  the  speaker  to  draw  his  breath  ;  and  the  proper 
and  delicate  adjustment  of  such  pauses,  is  one  of  the  most 
nice  and  difficult  articles  of  delivery.  In  all  reading,  and 
public  speaking,  the  management  of  the  breath  requires 
a  good  deal  of  care,  so  as  not  to  oblige  us  to  divide  words 
from  one  another,  which  have  so  intimate  a  connexion, 
that  they  ought  to  be  pronounced  with  the  same  breath, 
and  without  the  least  separation.  Many  sentences  are 
miserably  mangled,  and  the  force  of  the  emphasis  totally 
lost,  by  the  divisions  being  made  in  the  wrong  place.  To 
avoid  this,  every  one,  while  he  is  speaking  or  reading, 
should  be  very  careful  to  provide  a  full  supply  of  breath 
for  what  he  is  to  utter.  It  is  a  great  mistake  to  imagine, 
that  the  breath  must  be  drawn  only  at  the  end  of  a  period, 
when  the  voice  is  allowed  to  fall.  It  may  easily  be  gather- 
ed at  the  intervals  of  the  period,  when  the  voice  is  only 
suspended  for  a  moment ;  and,  by  this  management,  one 
may  always  have  a  sufficient  stock  for  carrying  on  the 
lont^est  sentence,  without  improper  interruptions. 

Pauses  in  reading,  and  public  discourse,  must  be  form- 
ed upon  the  manner  in  v/hich  we  utter  ourselves  in  ordi- 
nary, sensible  conversation  ;  and  not  upon  the  stiff  artificial 
manner  which  we  acquire  from  reading  books  according 
to  the  common  punctuation.  It  will  by  no  means  be  suf- 
ficient lo  attend  to  the  points  used  in  printing  ;  for  these 
are  far  from  marking  all  the  pauses  which  ought  to  be 
made  in  speaking.  A  mechanical  attention  to  these  rest- 
ing-places, has  perhaps  been  one  cause  of  monotony,  by 
leatling  the  reader  to  a  similar  tone  at  everv  stop,  and  a 

T 


218  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.^  (ScCt.  4. 

tiniform  cadence  at  every  period.  The  primary  use  of 
points  is,  to  assist  the  reader  in  discerning  the  grammati- 
cal construction  ;  and  it  is  only  as  a  secondary  object,  that 
they  regulate  his  pronunciation. 

To  render  pauses  pleasing  and  expressive,  they  must 
not  only  be  made  in  the  right  place,  but  also  accompanied 
•\vith  a  proper  tone  of  voice,  by  which  the  nature  of  these 
pauses  is  intimated ;  much  more  than  by  the  length  of 
them,  which  can  seldom  be  exactly  measured.  Some- 
times it  is  only  a  slight  and  simple  suspension  of  voice 
that  is  proper  ;  sometimes  a  degree  of  cadence  in  the 
voice  is  required  j  and  sometimes  that  peculiar  tone  and 
cadence  which  denote  the  sentence  to  be  finished.  In  all 
these  cases,  we  are  to  regulate  ourselves,  by  attending  to 
the  manner  in  which  nature  teaches  us  to  speak,  when 
engaged  in  real  and  earnest  discourse  with  others. 

It  is  a  general  rule,  that  the  suspending  pause  should 
be  used  when  the  sense  is  incomplete  ;  and  the  closing 
pause,  when  it  is  finished.  But  there  are  phrases,  in  which, 
though  the  sense  is  not  completed,  the  voice  takes  the 
closing,  rather  than  the  suspending  pause  ;  and  others,  in 
which  the  sentence  finishes  by  the  pause  of  suspension. 

The  closing  pause  must  not  be  confounded  with  that 
fall  of  the  voice,  or  cadence^  with  which  many  readers  uni- 
formly finish  a  sentence.  Nothing  is  more  destructive  of 
propriety  and  energy  than  this  habit.  The  tones  and  in- 
flections of  the  voice  at  the  close  of  a  sentence,  ought  to 
be  diversified,  according  to  the  general  nature  of  the  dis- 
course, and  the  particular  construction  and  meaning  of  the 
sentence.  In  plain  narrative,  and  especially  in  argument- 
ation, a  small  attention  to  the  manner  in  which  we  relate 
a  fact,  or  maintain  an  argument,  in  conversation,  will  show, 
that  it  is  frequently  more  proper  to  raise  the  voice,  than 
to  let  it  fall,  at  the  end  of  a  sentence.  Some  sentences 
are  so  constructed,  that  the  last  words  require  a  stronger 
emphasis  than  any  of  the  preceding  ;  while  others  admit 
of  being  closed  with  a  soft  and  gentle  sound.  Where 
there  is  nothing  in  the  sense  which  requires  the  last 
sound  to  be  elevated  or  emphatical,  an  easy  fall,  sufficient 
to  show  that  the  sense  is  finished,  will  be  proper.  And 
In  pathetic  pieces,  especially  those  of  the  plaintive,  ten- 


Tones.)  prosody.  219 

der,  or  solemn  kind,  the  tone  of  the  passion  will  often  re- 
quire a  still  greater  cadence  of  the  voice.  The  best  me- 
thod of  correcting  a  uniform  cadence,  is  frequently  to  read 
select  sentences,  in  which  the  style  is  pointed,  and  in  which 
antitheses  are  frequently  introduced  ;  and  argumentative 
pieces,  or  such  as  abound  with  intcrrogatives,  or  earnest 
exclamation. 

SECTION  5. 

Of  Tones. 

Tones  are  different  both  from  emphasis  and 
pauses ;  consisting  in  the  modulation  of  the 
voice,  the  notes  or  variations  of  sound  which  we 
employ  in  the  expression  of  our  sentiments. 

Emphasis  affects  particular  words  and  phrases  with  a 
degree  of  tone  or  inflecuon  of  the  voice ;  but  tones,  pe- 
culiarly so  called,  affect  sentences,  paragraphs,  and  some- 
times even  the  whole  of  a  discourse. 

To  show  the  use  and  necessity  of  tones,  we  need  only 
observe,  that  the  mind,  in  communicating  its  ideas,  is  in 
a  continual  state  of  activity,  emotion,  or  agitation,  from  the 
different  effects  which  those  ideas  produce  in  the  speaker. 
Now  the  end  of  such  communication  being,  not  merely  to 
lay  open  the  ideas,  but  also  the  ditTerent  feelings  which 
they  excite  in  him  who  utters  them,  there  must  be  other 
signs  than  words,  to  manifest  those  feelings  ;  as  words 
uttered  in  a  monotonous  manner,  can  repi'esent  only  a  simi- 
lar state  of  mind,  perfectly  free  from  all  activity  or  emo- 
tion. As  the  communication  of  these  internal  feelings, 
was  of  much  more  consequence  in  our  social  intercourse^ 
than  the  mere  conveyance  of  ideas,  the  Author  of  our  be- 
ing did  not,  as  in  that  conveyance,  leave  the  invention  of 
the  language  of  emotion,  to  man  ;  but  impressed  it  him- 
self upon  our  nature  in  the  same  manner  as  he  has  done 
with  regard  to  the  rest  of  the  animal  world  ;  all  of  which 
express  their  various  feelings,  by  various  tones.  Ours  in- 
deed, from  the  superior  rank  that  we  hold,  are  in  a  high 
degree  more  comprehensive  ;  as  there  is  not  an  act  of  the 
mind,  an  exertion  of  the  fancy,  or  an  emotion  of  the  heart, 
which  has  not  its  peculiar  tone,  or  note  of  the  voice,  by 


5220  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  (ScCt.  5. 

which  it  is  to  be  expressed  :  and  which  is  suited  exactly 
to  tf^e  degree  of  internal  feeling.  It  is  chiefly  in  the  pro- 
per use  of  these  tones,  that  the  life,  spirit,  beauty,  and  har- 
mony of  delivery  consist. 

An  extract  from  the  beautiful  lamentation  of  David  over 
Saul  and  Jonathan,  may  serve  as  an  example  of  what  has 
been  said  on  this  subject.  '  The  beauty  of  Israel'  is  slain 
upon  thy  high  places.  How  are  the  mighty  fallen  !  Teil 
it  not  in  Gath  ;  publish  it  not  in  the  streets  of  Askelon  : 
lest  the  daughters  of  the  Philistines  rejoice ;  lest  the 
daughters  of  the  uncircumcised  triumph.  Ye  mountains 
of  Grilboa,  let  there  be  no  dew,  nor  rain  upon  you,  nor 
fields  of  offerings  ;  for  there  the  shield  of  the  mighty  was 
vilely  cast  away  ;  the  shield  of  Saul,  as  though  he  had  not 
been  anointed  with  oil !'  The  first  of  these  divisions  ex- 
presses sorrov/  and  lamentation  ;  therefore  the  note  is  low. 
The  next  contains  a  spirited  command,  and  should  be 
pronounced  much  higher.  The  other  sentence,  in  which 
he  makes  a  pathetic  address  to  the  mountains  where  his 
friends  were  slain,  must  be  expressed  in  a  note  quite  dif- 
ferent from  the  two  former :  not  so  low  as  the  first,  nor 
so  high  as  the  second,  in  a  manly,  firm,  and  yet  plaintive 
tone.* 

This  correct  and  natural  language  of  the  emotions,  is 
not  so  difficult  to  be  attained,  as  most  readers  seem  to  im- 
agine. If  we  enter  into  the  spirit  of  the  author's  senti- 
ments, as  well  as  into  the  meaning  of  his  words,  we  shall 
not  fail  to  deliver  the  words  in  properly  varied  tones.  For 
there  are  few  people,  who  speak  English  without  a  pro- 
vincial tone,  that  have  not  an  accurate  use  of  emphasis, 
pauses,  and  tones,  when  they  uttpr  their  sentiments  in  ear- 
nest discourse :  and  the  reason  that  they  have  riOt  the  same 
use  of  them,  in  reading  aloud  the  sentiments  of  others, 
may  be  traced  to  the  very  defective  and  erroneous  method, 
in  which  the  art  of  reading  is  taught ;  whereby  all  the  va- 
rious, natural,  expressive  tones  of  speech,  are  suppressed, 
and  a  few  artificial,  unmeaning,  reading  notes,  are  sub- 
stituted for  them. 

But   when  we   recommend  to  readers,  an  attention  to 
the  tone  and  language  of  emotions,  we  must  be  under- 
•  Herries. 


Versification.)  prosody.  221 

stood  to  do  it  with  proper  limitation.  Moderation  is  neces- 
sary in  this  point,  as  it  is  in  other  things.  For  when  read-, 
ing  becomes  strictly  imitative,  it  assumes  a  theatrical  man- 
ner, and  must  be  highly  improper,  as  well  as  give  offence 
to  the  hearers  ;  because  it  is  inconsistent  with  that  deli- 
cacy and  modesty,  which,  on  all  occasions,  are  indispen- 
sable. 

CHAPTER  II. 

OF    VERSIFICATION. 

As  there  are  few  persons  who  do  not  sometimes  read 
poetical  composition,  it  seems  necessary  to  give  the  stu- 
dent some  idea  of  that  part  of  grammar,  which  explains 
the  principles  of  versification  ;  that,  in  reading  poetry,  he 
may  be  the  better  able  to  judge  of  its  correctness,  and 
relish  its  beauties.  When  this  lively  mode  of  exhibiting 
nature  and  sentiment,  is  perfectly  chaste,  it  is  often  found 
to  be  highly  interesting  and  instructive. 

Versification  is  the  arrangement  of  a 
certain  number  and  variety  of  syllables,  accord- 
ing to  certain  laws. 

Rhyme  is  the  correspondence  of  the  last  sound 
of  one  verse,  to  the  last  sound  or  syllable  of  an- 
other. 

Feet  and  pauses  are  the  constituent  parts  of  verse.  We 
shall  consider  these  separately. 

Of  Poetical  Feet. 

A  certain  number  of  syllables  connected,  form  a  foot.' 
They  are  called  feet,  because  it  is  by  their  aid  that  the 
voice,  as  it  were,  steps  along  through  the  verse,  in  a  mea- 
sured pace  ;  and  it  is  necessary  that  the  syllables  whiclu 
mark  this  regular  movement  of  the  voice,  should,  in  some 
manner,  be  distinguished  from  the  others.  This  distinc- 
tion was  made  among  the  ancient  Romans,  by  dividing; 
their  syllables  into  long  and  short,  and  ascertaining  their 
quantity,  by  an  exact  proportion  of  time  in  sounding  them  j 
the  long  being  to  the  shoit,  as  two  to  one  ;  and  the  long, 
syllables  being  thus  the  more  important,  marked  the 
T3 


222        ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.      (Versificatiofi. 

movement.  In  English,  syllables  are  divided  into  accent- 
ed and  unaccented ;  and  the  accented  syllables  being  as 
strongly  distinguished  from  the  unaccented,  by  the  pecu- 
liar stress  of  the  voice  upon  them,  are  equally  capable  of 
marking  the  movement,  and  pointing  out  the  regular  pa- 
ces of  the  voice,  as  the  long  syllables  were  by  their  quan- 
tity, among  the  Romansb, 

When  the  feet  are  formed  by  an  accent  on  vowels,  they 
are  exactly  of  the  same  nature  as  the  ancient  feet,  and 
have  the  same  just  quantity  in  their  syllables.  So  that,  in 
this  respect,  we  have  all  that  the  ancients  had,  and  some- 
thing which  they  had  not.  We  have  in  fact  duplicates  of 
each  foot,  yet  with  such  a  difference,  as  to  fit  them  for 
different  purposed,  to  be  applied  at  our  pleasure. 

Every  foot  has,  from  nature,  powers  peculiar  to  itself  j 
and  it  is  upon  the  knowledge  and  right  application  of  these 
powers,  that  the  pleasure  and  effect  of  numbers  chiefly 
depend. 

All  feet  used  in  poetry  consist  either  of  two,  or  of  three 
syllables  ;  and  are  reducible  to  eight  kinds  ;  four  of  two 
syllables,  and  four  of  three,  as  follows  : 

DISSYLLABLE.  TRISYLLABLE. 

A  Trochee  -  o  A  Dactyl  -  o    o 

An  Iambus    o  -  An  Amphibrach    o  -  o 

A  Spondee  —  An  Anapaest  o    o  - 

A  Pyrrhic  o    o  A  Tribrach    o    o    o 

A  Trochee  has  the  first  syllable  accented,  and  the  last 
unaccented  :  as,  '  Hateful,  pettish.' 

An  Iambus  has  the  first  syllable  unaccented,  and  the 
Jast  accented  :  as,  ^  BetrS-y,  consist.' 

A  Spondee  has  both  the  words  or  syllables  accented  : 
as,  *  The  pale  moon.* 

A  Pyrrhic  has  both  the  words  or  syllables  unaccented  : 

o 

as,  'On  the  tall  tree.' 

A  Dactyl  has  the  first  syllable  accented,  and  the  two 
latter  unaccented  :  as,  '  Labourer,  possible.' 

An  Amphibrach  has  the  first  and  last  syllables  unac- 
cented :  and  the  middle  one  accented  j  '^s,  *  Deiightfulj 
dome  Stic'  *" 


Versification.)  prosody,  225 

An  Anapaest  has  the  two  first  syllables  unaccented,  and 
the  last  accented  :  as,  '  Contravene,  acquie&ce.* 

A  Tribrach  has  all  its  syllables  unaccented  :  assu- 
me rable,  c6nquerable. 

Some  of  these  feet  may  be  denominated  firincifial  feet ; 
as  pieces  of  poetry  may  be  wholly,  or  chiefly  formed  of 
any  of  them.  Such  are  the  Iambus,  Trochee,  Dactyl, 
and  Anapaest.  The  others  may  be  termed  secondary 
feet  ;  because  their  chief  use  is  to  diversify  the  numbers, 
and  to  improve  the  verse . 

We  shall  first  explain  the  nature  of  the  principal  feet. 

IAMBIC  verses  may  be  divided  into  several  species, 
according  to  the  number  of  feet  or  syllables  of  which 
they  are  composed. 

1.  The  shortest  form  of  the  English  Iambic  consists  of 
an  Iambus,  with  an  additional  short  syllable  :  as, 

Disdaining, 

Complaining, 

Consenting, 

Repenting. 
We  have  no  poem  of  this  measure,  but  it  may  be  met 
with  in  stanzas.     The  Iambus,  with  this  addition,  coin- 
cides with  the  Amphibrach. 

2.  The  second  form  of  our  Iambic  is  also  too  short  to 
be  continued  through  any  great  number  of  lines.  It  con- 
sists of  two  Iambuses. 

What  place  is  here  ! 

What  scenes  appear ! 

To  me  the  rose 

No  longer  glows. 
It  sometimes  takes,  or  may  take,  an  additional  short  syl- 
lable :  as, 

o 

Upon  a  mountain. 
Beside  a  fountain. 

3.  The  third  form  consists  of  three  Iambuses. 

o 

In  places   far  or  near. 
Or  famous  or  obscure. 
Where  wholesome  is  the  air, 
Or  where  the  most  impure, 
ft  sometimes  admits  of  an  additional  short  syllable  >  as, 


224  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.     (Vcrsificatioiu" 

Our  hearts  no  longer  languish. 

4.  The  fourth  form  is  made  up  oi  four  Iambuses, 
o 

'  And  may  at  last  my-  weary  age, 

Find  out  the  peaceful  hermitage. 

5.  The  fifth   species   of  English    Iambic,  consists  of 
Jive  Iambuses. 

How  lov'd,  how  valii'd  once,  avails  thee  not, 
To  whom  related,  or  by  whom  begot : 
A  heap  of  dust  alone  remains  of  thee  ; 
'Tis  all  thou  art,  and  all  the  proud  shall  be. 

Be  wise  to-day,  'tis  madness  to  defer ; 

Next  day  the  fatal  precedent  will  plead  ; 

Thus  on,  till  wisdom  is  push'd  out  of  life. 
This  is  called  the  Heroic  measure.  In  its  simplest 
form  it  consists  of  five  Iambuses  ;  but  by  the  admission  of 
other  feet,  as  Trochees,  Dactyls,  Anapaests,  &c.  it  is  capa- 
ble of  many  varieties.  Indeed,  most  of  the  English  com- 
mon measures  may  be  varied  in  the  same  way,  as  well  as 
by  the  different  position  of  their  pauses. 

6.  The  sixth  form  of  our  Iambic  is  commonly  called 
the  Alexandrine  measure.     It  consists  of  s/x  Iambuses. 

For  thou  art  but  of  dust ;  be  humble  and  be  wise. 
The    Alexandrine    is  sometimes  introduced  into  heroic 
rhyme  ;  and  when  used  sparingly,  and  with  judgment,  oc- 
casions an  agreeable  variety. 

The  seas  shall  waste,  the  skies  in  smoke  decay, 
Rocks  fall  to  dust,  and  mountains  melt  away  ; 
But  fix'd  his  word,  his  saving  pow'r  remains  : 
Thy  realm  for  ever  lastSy  thy  own  Messiah  reigns. 

7.  The  seventh  and  last  form  of  our  Iambic  measure^' 
is  made  up  of  seven  Iambuses. 

The  Lord  descended  from  above,  and  bow'd  the 
heavens  high. 
This  was  anciently  written  in  one  line ;  but  it  is  now 
broken  into  two ;  the  first  containing  four  feet,  and  the 
second  three  : 

When  all  thy  mercies,  O  my  God  ! 

My  rising  soul  surveys, 
Transported  with  the  view,  Fm  lost 

In  wonder,  love,  and  praise. 


Versification.)         prosody.  225 

In  all  these  measures,  the  accents  are  to  be  placed  on  even 
syllables  ;  and  every  line  considered  by  itself,  is,  in  general, 
more  melodious,  as  this  rule  is  more  strictly  observed. 
TROCHAIC  verse  is  of  several  kinds. 

1 .  The  shortest  Trochaic  verse  in  oar  language,  con- 
sists of  one  Trochee  and  a  long  syllable. 

Tumult  cease, 

Sink  to  peace. 
This  measure  is  defective  in  dignity,  and  can  seldom  be 
used  on  serious  occasions. 

2.  The  second  English  form  of  the  Trochaic  consists 
of  two  feet ;  and  is  likewise  so  brief,  that  it  is  rarely  used 
for  any  very  serious  purpose. 

On  the  mountain 

By  a  fountain. 
It  sometimes  contains  two  feet  or  trochees,  with  an  ad« 
ditional  long  syllable  :  as. 

In  the  days  of  old 

Fables  plainly  told. 
'    3.  The  third  species  consists  of  three  trochees  :  as, 

When  our  hearts  arc  mourning  : 
or  of  three  trochees,  with  an  additional  long  syllable  :  as, 

Restless  mortals  toil  for  nought ; 

Bliss  in  vain  from  earth  is  sought ; 

Bliss,  a  native  of  the  sky. 

Never  %vanders.     Mortals,  try : 

There  you  cannot  seek  in  vain ; 

For  to  seek  her  is  to  gain. 

4.  The  fourth  Trochaic  species  consists  oi  four  tro- 
chees :  as. 

Round  us  roars  the  tempest  louder. 
This  form  may  take  an  additional  long  syllable,  as  follows : 

Idle  after  dinner  In  his  chair 
Sat  a  farmer,  ruddy,  fat,  and  fidr. 
But  this  measure  is  very  uncommon. 

5.  The  fifth  Trochaic  species  is  likewise  uncommon. 
It  is  composed  of  Jive  trochees. 

All  that  walk  on  foot  or  ride  in  chariot?, 
All  that  dwell  in  palaces  or  garrets. 


22d         ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.     (Versificatioi^ 

6.  The  sixth  form  of  the  English  Trochaic  consists  of 
sijc  trochees :  as, 

On  a.  mduntain,  stretch'd  beneath  a  hoary  willow, 
Lay  a  shepherd  swain,  and  view'd  the  rolling  billow. 
This  seems  to  be  the  longest  Trochaic  line  that  our 
language  admits. 

In  all  these  Trochaic  measures,  the  accent  is  to  be 
placed  on  the  odd  syllables. 

The  DACTYLIC  measure  being  veiy  uncommon;  we 
sliall  give  only  one  example  of  one  species  of  it: 
From  the  low  pleasures  of  this  fallen  nature, 
Rise  we  to  higher,  &c. 
ANAP^STIC  verses  are  divided  into  several  species. 

1 .  The  shortest  anapaestic  verse  must  be  a  single  ana- 
paest: as, 

But  in  vain. 

They  complain. 
This  measure  is,  however,  ambiguous  ;  for,  by  laying  the 
stress  of  the  voice  on  the  first  and  third  syllables,  we  might 
make  a  trochaic.  And  therefore  the  first  and  simplest 
form  of  our  genuine  Anapaestic  verse,  is  made  up  of  two 
Anapaests :  as. 

But  his  courage  *gan  fail, 

For  no  arts  could  avail. 
This  form  admits  of  an  additional  short  syllable. 

Then  his  courage  'gan  fail  him, 

For  no  arts  could  avail  him. 

2.  The  second  species  consists  oi  three  Anapaests. 

o 

0  ye  woods,  spread  your  branches  apace  ; 
To  your  deepest  recesses  I  fly  ; 

1  would  hide  with  the  beasts  of  the  chase ; 

I  would  vanish  from  every  eye. 
This  is  a  very  pleasing  measure,  and  much  used,  botfit; 
in  solemn  and  cheerful  subjects. 

3.  The  third  kind  of  the  English  Anapaestic,  consists  oC 
four  Anapaests. 

o 

May  I  govern  my  passions  with  absolute  sway  ; 
And  grow  wiser  and  better  as  life  wears  away. 
This  measure  wiU  admit  of  a  short  syllable  at  the  end:  i 


Versification.)         prosody.  227 

o 

On  the  warm  cheek  of  youth,  stniles  and  roses  are 

blending. 

The  preceding  are  the  different  kinds  of  the  principal 
feet,  in  their  more  simple  forms.  They  are  capable  of 
numerous  variations,  by  the  intermixture  of  those  feet 
with  each  other  j  and  by  the  admission  of  the  secondary 
feet. 

We  have  observed,  that  English  verse  is  composed  of 
feet  formed  by  accent ;  and  that  when  the  accent  falls  on 
vowels,  the  feet  are  equivalent  to  those  formed  by  quanti- 
ty. That  the  student  may  clearly  perceive  this  difference, 
we  shi'll  produce  a  specimen  of  each  kind. 
.  O'er  heaps  of  rums  siaik'd  the  stately  hind. 

Here  we  see  the  accent  is  upon  the  vowel  in  each  se- 
cond sylluble.  In  the  following  line  we  shall  find  the 
same  lanibic  movement,  but  formed  by  accent  on  conso- 
nants, except  the  last  syllable. 

Then  ri'isiling,  crackling,  crashing  thilnder  down. 

Here  the  time  of  the  short  accented  syllables,  is  com- 
pensated by  a  short  pause,  at  the  end  of  each  word  to 
which  they  belong. 

We  now  proceed  to  show  the  manner  in  which  poetry 
is  varied  and  improved,  by  the  admission  of  secondary  f^et 
into  its  composition. 

Murmuring,  and  with  him  fled  the  shades  of  night. 
The  first  foot  here  is  a  Dactyl ;  the  rest  are  Iambics. 

O'er  many  a  frozen,  many  a  fiery  Alp. 
This  line  contains  three  Amphibrachs  mixed  with  lani.- 
bics. 

Innumerable  before  th'  Almighty's  throne. 
.  Here,  in  the  second  foot,  we  find  a  Tribrach. 

See  the  bold  youth  strain  ilp  the  threatning  steep. 
In  this  line,  the  first  foot  is  a  Trochee ;  the  second  a 
genuine  Spondee  by  quantity  ;  the  third  a  Spondee  by  ac- 
cent. 

In  the  following  line,  the  first  foot  is  a  Pyrrhic,  the  se- 
cond a  Spondee. 

That  on  weak  Avings  from  far  pursues  your  flight. 
From  the  preceding  view  of  English  versification,  we 
may  see  what  a  copious  stock  of  materials  it  possesses. 


2ff8         ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.      (Versification. 

For  we  are  not  only  allowed  the  use  of  all  the  ancient  po- 
etic feet,  in  our  heroic  measure,  but  we  have,  as  before  ob- 
served^ duplicates  of  each,  agreeing  in  movement,  though 
differing  in  measure,*  and  which  make  different  impres- 
sions on  the  ear  ;  an  opulence  peculiar  to  our  language, 
and  which  may  be  the  source  of  a  boundless  variety. 

Of  Poetical  Pauses. 

There  are  two  sorts  of  pauses,  one  for  sense,  and  one 
for  melody,  perfectly  distinct  from  each  other.  The  for- 
mer may  be  called  sentential^  the  latter,  harmonic  pauses. 

The  sentential  pauses  are  those  which  are  known  to  us 
by  the  name  of  stops,  and  which  have  names  given  them; 
as  the  comma,  semicolon,  colon,  and  period. 

The  harmonic  pauses  may  be  subdivided  into  the  Jinal 
pause,  and  the  ccesural  pause.  These  sometimes  coincide 
with  the  sentential  pause,  sometimes  have  an  independent 
state,  that  is,  exist  where  there  is  no  stop  in  the  sense. 

The  final  pause  takes  place  at  the  end  of  the  line,  closes 
the  verse,  and  marks  the  measure  :  the  csesural  divides  it 
into  equal  or  unequal  parts. 

The  final  pause  preserves  the  melody,  without  inter- 
fering with  the  sense.  For  the  pause  itself  perfectly 
marks  the  bound  of  the  metre  ;  and  being  made  only  by  a 
suspension  of  the  voice,  not  by  any  change  of  note,  it  can 
never  affect  the  sense.  This  is  not  the  only  advantage 
gained  to  numbers,  by  this  final  pause  or  stop  of  suspen- 
sion. It  also  prevents  that  monotony,  that  sameness  of 
note  at  the  end  of  lines,  which,  however  pleasing  to  a  rude, 
is  disgusting  to  a  delicate  ear.  For  as  this  final  pause  has 
no  peculiar  note  of  its  own,  but  always  takes  that  which 
belongs  to  the  preceding  word,  it  changes  continually 
with  the  matter,  and  is  as  various  as  the  sense. 

It  is  the  final  pause  which  alone,  on  many  occasions, 
marks  the  difference  between  prose  and  verse  ;  which 
win  be  evident  from  the  following  arrangement  of  a  few 
poetical  lines.  *. 

*  Movement  and  measure  are  thus  distinguished.  JHoremeiit 
expresses  tlie  prv>gressive  order  of  sounds,  wliether  from  strong" 
to  weak,  from  iorig  to  short,  or  ■vice  versa.  AZeasftre  signifies  the 
proportion  of  time,  both  in  sounds  and  pauses. 


Versification .)         prosody.  229 

*  of  man's  first  disobedience,  and  the  fruit  of  that  for- 
bidden tree,  whose  mortal  taste  brought  death  mto  the 
world,  and  all  our  wo,  with  loss  of  Eden,  till  one  greater 
man  restore  us,  and  regain  the  blissful  seat,  sing  heavenly 
muse !' 

A  stranger  to  the  poem  would  not  easily  discover  that 
this  is  verse;  but  would  take  it  for  .poetical  prose.  By 
properly  adjusting  the  final  pause,  we  shall  restore  the 
passage  to  its  true  state  of  verse. 

Of  man's  first  disobedience,  and  the  fruit 
Of  that  forbidden  tree,  whose  mortal  taste 
Brought  death  into  the  world,  and  all  our  wo, 
With  loss  of  Eden,  till  one  greater  man 
Restore  us,  and  regain  the  blissful  seat, 
Sing,  heavenly  muse  ! 
These  examples  show  the  necessity  of  reading  blank 
verse,  in  such  a  manner,  as  to  make  eveiy  line  sensible  to 
the  ear :  for,  what  is  the  use  of  melody,  or  for  what  end 
has  the  poet  composed  in  verse,  if,  in  reading  his  lines, 
we  suppress  his  numbers,  by  omitting  the  final  pause ;  and 
degrade  them,  by  our  pronunciation,  into  mere  prose  ! 

The  Caesura  is  commonly  on  the  fourth,  fifth,  or  sixth 
syllable  of  heroic  verse. 

On  the  fourth  syllable,  or  at  the  end  of  the  second  foot ; 
as, 

The  silver  eel"  in  shining  volumes  roll'd. 
The  yellow  carp"  in  scales  bedropp'd  with  gold. 
On  the  fifth  syllable,  or  in  the  middle  of  the  third  foot : 
as, 

Round  broken  columns"  clasping  ivy  twin*d, 
0*er  heapsof  ruin"  stalk*d  the  stately  hind. 
On  the  sixth  syllable,  or  at  the  end  of  the  third  foot :  as, 
Oh  say  what  stranger  cause"  yet  unexplor'd, 
Could  make  a  gentle  belle"  reject  a  lord  ? 
A  line  may  be  divided  into  three  portions,  by  two  caesu- 
ras :  as, 

Outstretch'd  he  lay"  on  the  cold  ground"  and  oft" 
Look'd  up  to  heav'n. 
There  is  another  mode  of  dividing  lines,  well  suited  to 
the  nature  of  the  couplet,  by  introducing  semi-pauses, 

U 


230         ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. ~     (Versification.' 

which  divide  the  line  into  four  pauses.     This  senu-pause 
maybe  called  a  demi-casura. 

The  foilowini^  lines  admit  of,  and  exemplify  it.- 

Glows'  while  he  readb"  but  trembles'  as  he  writes. 

Reason'  the  card"  but  passion'  is  the  gale. 

Rides'  in  the  whirlwinii"  and  directs'  the  storm. 

Of  Melody^  Harmony^  and  Expression. 
•  Having  shewn  the  general  nature  of  feet  and  pauses, 
the  constituent  parts  of  verse,  we  shall  now  point  out, 
more  particularly,  their  use  and  importance. 

Melody,  harmony,  and  expression,  are  the  three  great 
objects  of  poetic  numbers.  By  melody,  is  meant,  a  pleas- 
ing effect  produced  on  tlie  ear,  from  an  apt  arrangement 
of  the  constituent  parts  of  verse,  accoiding  to  the  laws  of 
measure  and  movement  By  harmony,  an  effect  produc- 
ed by  an  action  of  the  mind,  in  comparing  the  different 
members  of  a  verse  with  each  other,  and  perceiving  a  due 
and  beautiful  proportion  between  them.  By  expression, 
such  a  choice  and  arrangement  of  the  constituent  parts  of 
verse,  as  serve  to  enforce  and  illustrate  the  thought  of  the 
sentiment. 

We  shall  consider  each  of  these  three  objects  in  versifi- 
cation, both  with  respect  to  the  feet  and  the  pauses. 

1st.  With  regard  to  melody. 

From  the  examples  which  we  have  given  of  verses 
composed  in  all  the  principal  feet,  it  is  evident  that  a; 
considerable  portion  of  melody  is  found  in  each  of  them,j 
though  in  different  degrees.  Verses  made  up  of  pure! 
Iambics  have  an  excellent  m^elody. 

That  the  final  and  csesural  pauses  contribute  to  melody,; 
cannot  be  doubted  by  any  person  wjio  reviews  the  in- 
stances, which  we  have  already  given  of  those  pauses.  To. 
form  lines  of  the  first  melody,  the  caesura  must  be  at  the] 
end  of  the  second,  or  of  the  third  foot,  or  in  the  middle  of 
the  third. 

2d.  With  respect  to  harmony- 
Verses  composed  of  Iambics  have  indeed  a  fine  liarmo- 
iiy  ;  but  as  the  stress  of  the  voice,  in  repeating  such  verses,^ 
is  always  in  the  same  places,  that  is,  on  every  second  sylla-^ 
bic,  feuch  a  uniformity  would  disgust  the  ear  in  a  long  sue- 


Versification.)  prosody.  231 

cession  ;  and  therefore  such  changes  were  sought  for,  as 
might  introduce  the  pleasure  of  variety,  without  prejudice 
to  melody ;  or  which   might  even   contribute   to  its  im- 
provement.    Of  this  nature  was  the  introduction  of  the 
Trochee,  to  form  the  first  foot  of  an  heroic  verse  :  as, 
Favours  to  none,  to  all  she  smiles  extends, 
O'ft  she  rejects,  but  never  once  offends. 
Each  of  these  lines  begins  with  a  Trochee  ;  the  remain- 
ing feet  are  in  the  Iambic  movement.     In  the  following 
line  of  the  same  movement,  the  fourth  foot  is  a  Trochee. 

All  these  our  notions  vain,  sees  and  derides. 
The  next  change  admitted  for  the  sake  of  variety,  with- 
out prejudice  to  melody,  is  the  intermixture  of  Pyrrhics 
and  Spondees  ;  in  Avhich,  two  impressions  in  the  one  foot 
make  up  for  the  want  of  one  in  the  other ;  and  two  long 
syllables  compensate  two  short  ones,  so  as  to  make  the 
sum  of  the  quantity  of  the  two  feet,  equal  to  two  Iambics. 

o 

On  the  green  bank  to  look  into  the  clear 
Smooth  lake  that  to  me  seem*d  another  sky. 
Stood  rul'd  stood  vast  infinitude  confined. 
The  next  variety  admitted  is  that  of  the  Amphibrach, 

Which  many  a  bard  had  chaunted  many  a  day. 
In  this  line,  we  find  that  two  of  the  feet  are  Amphi- 
brachs  ;  and  three.  Iambics. 

We  have  before  shown  that  the  caesura  improves  the 
melody  of  verse ;  and  we  shall  now  speak  of  its  other 
more  important  office,  that  of  being  the  chief  source  of 
harmony  in  numbers. 

The  first  and  lowest  perception  of  harmony,  by  means 
of  the  caesura,  arises  from  comparing  two  members  of  the 
same  line  with  each  other,  divided  in  the  manner  to  be 
seen  in  the  instances  before  mentioned ;  because  the 
beauty  of  proportion  in  the  members,  according  to  each 
of  these  divisions,  is  founded  on  nature  ;  behig  as  one  to 
two— two  to  three — or  three  to  two. 

The  next  degree  arises  from  comparing  the  members 
of  a  couplet,  or  two  contiguous  lines  :  as, 
^^      See  the  bold  youth"  strain  up  the  threatening  steep, 
^Kk     Rush  thro*  the  thickets''  down  the  valleys  sweep. 


232         ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.      (Versificatioii. 

Here  we  find  the  caesura  of  the  first  line,  at  the  end  of 
the  second  foot ;  and  in  the  middle  of  the  third  foot,  in 
the  last  line. 

Hang  o'er  their  coursers'  heads"  with  eager  speed, 
And  earth  rolls  back"  beneath  the  flying  steed. 
In  this  couplet,  the  caesura  is  at  the  end  of  the  third  foot, 
in  the  first  line  ;  and  of  the  second,  in  the  latter  line. 

The  next  perception  of  harmony  arises  from  compar- 
ing a  greater  number  of  lines,  and  observing  the  relative 
proportion  of  the  couplets  to  each  other,  in  point  of  simi- 
larity and  diversity :  as. 

Thy  forests  Windsor"  and  thy  green  retreats, 
At  once  the  monarch's"  and  the  muse's  seats. 
Invite  my  lays."     Be  present  Sylvan  maids, 
Unlock  your  springs'^  and  open  all  your  shades. 
Not  half  so  swifl"  the  trembling  doves  can  fly. 
When  the  fierce  eagle"  cleaves  the  liquid  sky ; 
Not  half  so  swiftly"  the  fierce  eagle  moves. 
When  through  the  clouds"  he  drives  the  trembling 
doves. 
In  this  way,  the  comparison  of  lines  variously  appor- 
tioned by  the  different  seats  of  the  three  caesuras,  may  be 
the  source  of  a  great  variety  of  harmony,  consistent  with 
the  finest  melody.     This  is  still  increased  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  two  caesuras,  and  much  more  by  that  of  semi-pauses. 
The  semi-pauses  double  every  where  the  terms  of  com- 
parison ;  give  a  more  distinct  view  of  the  whole  and  the 
parts  ;  afford  new  proportions  of  measurement,  and  an 
ampler  scope  for  diversity  and  equality,  those  sources  of 
beauty  in  harmony. 

Warms'  in  the  sun"  refreshes'  in  the  breeze. 
Glows'  in  the  stars"  and  blossoms'  in  the  trees  ; 
Lives'  through  all  life"  extends'  through  all  extent, 
Spreads'  undivided"  operates'  unspent, 
od.  The  last  object  in  versification  regards  expression. 
When  men  express  their  sentiments  by  words,  they 
naturally  fall  into  that  sort  of  movement  of  the  voice, 
which  is  consonant  to  that  produced  by  the  emotion  in  the 
mind  ;  and  the  Dactylic  or  Anapaestic,  the  Trochaic,  Iam- 
bic, or  Spondiac,  prevails  even  in  comm.on  discourse,  ac- 
cording to  the  different  nature  of  the  sentiments  express- 


Versification.)  prosody.  233 

ed.  To  imitate  nature,  tlierefore,  the  poet,  in  arranging 
his  words  in  the  artificial  composition  of  vea'se,  must  take 
care  to  make  the  movement  correspond  to  the  sentiment, 
by  the  proper  use  of  tlie  several  kinds  of  feet :  and  this  is 
the  first  and  most  general  source  of  expression  in  numbers. 

That  a  judicious  management  of  the  feet  and  pauses^ 
may  be  peculiarly  expressive  of  particular  operations  and 
sentiments,  will  sufficiently  appear  to  the  learner,  by  a 
few  select  examples  under  each  of  those  heads. 

In  the  following  instance,  the  vast  dimensions  of  Sataa 
are  shown  by  an  uncommon  succession  of  long  syllables, 
which  detain  us  to  survey  the  huge  arch  fiend,  in  his  fixed 
posture. 

So  stretch'd  out  hiige  in  length  the  arch  fiend  lay. 

The  next  example  affords  instances  of  the  power  of  a 
Trochee  beginning  a  line,  when  succeeded  by  an  Iambus^ 

— and  sheer  within 

Lights  on  his  feet :  as  when  a  prowling  wolf 
Leaps  o'er  the  fence  with  ease  into  the  fold. 

The  Trochee  which  begins  the  line  shows  Satan  in  the 
act  of  lighting:  the  Iambus  that  follows,  fixes  him — 
'  Lights  on  his  feet.* 

The  same  artifice,  in  the  beginning  of  the  next  Ime, 
m^akes  us  see  the  wolf — '  leap  o'er  the  fence.' — But  as  the 
mere  act  of  leaping  over  the  fence,  is  not  the  only  circum- 
stance to  be  attended  to,  but  also  the  facility  with  which  it 
is  done,  this  is  strongly  marked,  not  only  by  the  smooth  foot 
which  follows — '  with  ease' — itself  very  expressive,  but 
likewise  by  a  Pyrrhic  preceding  the  last  foot — 'into  th^ 
fold' — which  indeed  carries  the  wolf — '  with  ease  into 
the  f  61d.* 

The  following  instances  show  the  effects  produced  by 
caesuras,  so  placed  as  to  divide  the  line  into  very  unequal 
portions  :  such  as  that  after  the  first,  and  before  the  last 
semipede. 

—thus  with  the  year 

Seasons  return,  but  not  to  me  returns 

Day''  or  the  sweet  approach  of  even  or  mom. 

Here  the  cscsura  after  the  first  semipede  Day,  stops  us 
unexpectedly,  and  forcibly  impresses  the  imagination  with 
the  greatness  of  the  author's  loss,  the  loss  of  sight. 
U  2 


234  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.' 

No  sooner  had  th*  Almighty  ceasM,  but  all 

The  multitude  of  angels,  with  a  shout 

Loud''  as  from  numbers  without  number"  sweet 

As  from  blest  voices  uttering  joy. 

There  is  something  very  striking  in  this  uncommon 

csesura,  which  suddenly  stops  the  reader,  to  reflect  on  the 

importance  of  a  particular  word. 

We  shall  close  the  subject,  with  an  example  containing 

the  united  powers  of  many  of  the  principles  which  have 

been  explained. 

Dire  was  the  tossing''  deep  the  groans"  Despair" 
Tended  the  sick"  busiest  from  coiich  to  cotich" 
And  over  them  tritimphant  death"  his  dart" 
Shook"  but  delay'd  to  strike. 
Many  of  the  rules  and  observations  respecting  Prosody, 

are  taken  from  '  Sheridan's  Art  of  Reading  ;'  to  which 

book  the  Compiler  refers  the  ingenious  student,  for  more 

extensive  information  on  the  subject. 


PUJVCTUATIOJsr* 

Punctuation  is  the  art  of  dividing  a  written 
composition  into  sentences,  or  parts  of  sentences, 
by  points  or  stops,  for  the  purpose  of  marking 
the  different  pauses  which  the  sense,  and  an  ac- 
curate pronunciation  require. 

The  Comma  represents  the  shortest  pause  ; 
the  Semicolon,  a  pause  double  that  of  the  com- 
ma ;  the  Colon,  double  that  of  the  semicolon  ; 
and  the  Period  double  that  of  the  colon. 

The  precise  quantity  or  duration  of  each  pause,  cannot 
be  defined  j  for  it  varies  with  the  time  of  the  whole-  The 

*  As  punctuation  is  intended  to  aid  both  the  sense,  and  the 
pronunciation  of  a  sentence,  it  could  not  have  been  exclusively 
discussed  under  the  part  of  Syntax  or  of  Prosody.  The  nature 
of  the  subject,  its  extent  and  importance,  and  the  g-rammatical 
knowledge  which  it  presupposes,  have  induced  us  to  make  it  a 
distinct  and  subsequent  article. 


Comma.)  punctuation:  235 

same  composition  may  be  rehearsed  in  a  quicker  or  a 
slower  time  ;  but  the  proportion  between  the  pauses 
should  be  ever  invariable. 

In  order  more  clearly  to  determine  the  proper  applica- 
tion of  the  points,  we  must  distinguish  between  an  imfiev' 
feet  phrase^  a  simfile  sentence.,  and  a  comfiound  sentence. 

An  imperfect  phrase  contains  no  assertion,  or  does  not 
amount  to  a  proposition  or  sentence  :  as, '  Therefore  ;  in 
haste  ;  studious  of  praise.* 

A  simple  sentence  has  but  one  subject,  and  one  finite 
verb,  expressed  or  implied  :  as,  <  Temperance  preserves 
health.' 

A  compound  sentence  has  more  than  one  subject,  or 
one  finite  verb,  either  expressed  or  understood ;  or  it  con- 
sists of  two  or  more  simple  sentences  connected  together  : 
as, '  Good  nature  mends  and  beautifies  all  objects  ;*  *  Vir- 
tue refines  the  affections,  but  vice  debases  tliem.* 

In  a  sentence,  the  subject  and  the  verb,  or  either  of 
them,  may  be  accompanied  with  several  adjuncts  :  as,  the 
object,  the  end,  the  circumstance  of  time,  place,  manner, 
and  the  like  :  and  the  subject  or  verb  may  be  either  im- 
mediately connected  with  them,  or  mediately  ;  that  is,  by 
being  connected  with  something  which  is  connected  with 
some  other,  and  so  on  :  as,  '  The  mind,  unoccupied  with 
useful  knowledge,  becomes  a  magazine  of  trifles  and 
follies.' 

Members  of  sentences  may  be  divided  into  simple  and 
compound  members.     See  page  124. 


fli^lE 


CHAPTER  I. 

OF    THE    COMxMA. 

HE  Comma  usually  separates  those  parts  of 
a  sentence,  which,  though  very  closely  connect- 
ed in  sense  and  construction,  require  a  pause  be- 
tween  them. 

Rule  i.  With  respect  to  a  simple  sentence,  the  several 
words  of  which  it  consists  have  so  near  a  relation  to  each 
other,  that,  in  general,  no  points  are  requisite,  except  a 
full  stop  at  the  end  of  it :  as,  '  "   '     "  '     ^ 


236  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  (Cottima.' 

the  beginning  of  wisdom.*  ^  Every  part  of  matter  swarms 
with  living  creatures.* 

A  simple  sentence,  however,  when  it  is  a  long  one,  and 
the  nominative  case  is  accompanied  with  inseparable  ad- 
juncts, may  admit  of  a  pause  immedidtely  before  the  verb  : 
as,  '  The  good  taste  of  the  present  age,  has  not  allowed 
us  to  neglect  the  cultivation  of  the  English  language  :* 
'  To  be  totally  indifferent  to  praise  or  censure,  is  a  real 
defect  in  character.* 

Rule  ii.  When  the  connexion  of  the  different  parts  of 
a  simple  sentence  is  interrupted  by  an  imperfect  phrase, 
a  comma  is  usually  introduced  before  the  beginning,  and 
at  the  end  of  this  phrase  :  as,  ^  I  remember,  with  grati- 
tude^ his  goodness  to  jne  :*  '  His  work  is,  in  many  resfiectSy 
very  imperfect.  It  is,  therefore^  not  much  approved.' — 
But  when  these  interruptions  are  slight  and  unimportant, 
the  comma  is  better  omitted  ;  as,  *  Flattery  is  certainly 
pernicious  :'  '  There  is  nurely  a  pleasure  in  beneficence.* 

In  the  generality  of  compound  sentences,  there  is  fre- 
quent occasion  for  commas.  This  will  appear  from  the 
following  rules  ;  some  of  which  apply  to  simple,  as  well 
as  to  compound  sentences. 

Rule  hi.  When  two  or  more  nouns  occur  in  the  same 
construction,  they  are  parted  by  a  comma  :  as,  *  Reason, 
virtue,  answer  one  great  aim  :'  *  The  husband,  wife,  and 
children,  suffered  extremely  :**  '  They  took  away  their 
furniture,  clothes,  and  stock  in  trade  :'  '  He  is  alternately 
supported  by  his  father,  his  uncle,  and  his  elder  brother.' 

From  tMs  rule  there  is  mostly  an  exception,  with  regard 
to  two  nouns  closely  connected  by  a  conjunction  :  as,  *  Vir- 
tue and  vice  form  a  strong  contrast  to  each  other  :*  *  Liber- 
tines call  religion  bigotry  on  superstition  ;*  *  There  is  a 
natural  difference  between  merit  and  demerit,  virtue  and 
vice,  wisdom  and  folly.*  But  if  the  parts  connected  are 
not  short,  a  comma  may  be  inserted  though  the  conjunc- 
tion is  expressed  i  as,  '  Rumances  may  be   said   to  be 

*  As  a  considerable  pause  in  pronun-eiation,  is  necessary  be- 
tween the  last  noun  and  the  verb,  a  comma  should  be  inserted  to 
denote  it.  But  as  no  pause  is  allowable  between  the  last  adjec- 
tive and  the  noiiD,  under  Rule  IV.  the  comma  is  there  properly 
gmitted.  See  WALKJBIV;:)  jSkmmts  of  JblocutiQii. 


Comma.)  ptrNcxuATioN.  257 

miserable  rhapsodies,  or  dangerous  incentives  to  evil  ;' 
*  Intemperance  destroys  the  strength  of  our  bodies,  and 
the  vigour  of  our  minds.' 

Rule  iv.  Two  or  more  adjectives  belonging  to  the 
same  substantive  are  likewise  separated  by  commas  :  as, 
'  Plain,  honest  truth,  wants  no  artificial  covering  ;'  ^  David 
was  a  brave,  wise,  and  pious  man  ;'  '  A  woman,  gentle, 
sensible,  well-educated,  and  religious  ;'  *  The  most  inno- 
cent pleasures  are  the  sweetest,  the  most  rational,  the 
most  affecting,  and  the  most  lasting.* 

But  two  adjectives,  immediately  connected  by  a  con- 
junction, are  not  separated  by  a  comma  :  as,  '  True  worth 
is  modest  arid  retired  ;'  '  Truth  is  fair  and  artless,  sim- 
ple and  sincere,  uniform  and  consistent.'  *  We  must  be 
wise  or  foolish  ;  there  is  no  medium.* 

Rule  v.  Two  or  more  verbs,  having  the  same  nomina- 
tive case,  and  immediately  following  one  another,  are  also 
separated  by  commas  :  as,  '  Virtue  supports  in  adversity, 
moderates  in  prosperity  :'  *  In  a  letter,  we  may  adviscj 
exhort,  comfort,  request,  and  discuss.' 

Two  verbs  immediately  connected  by  a  conjunction,  are 
an  exception  to  the  above  rule  :  aS;  '  The  study  of  natu- 
ral history  expands  and  elevates  the  mind  ;'  *  Whether 
we  eat  or  drink,  labour  or  sleep,  we  should  be  moderate.* 

Two  or  more  participles  are  subject  to  a  similar  rule, 
and  exception  :  as,  *  A  man,  fearing,  serving,  and  loving 
his  Creator  ;'  *  He  was  happy  in  being  loved,  esteemed 
and  respected  ;'  '  By  being  admired  and  flattered,  we  are 
often  corrupted.* 

Rule  vi.  Two  or  more  adverbs  immediately  succeed* 
ing  one  another,  must  be  separated  by  commas  ;  as,  '  We 
are  fearfully,  wonderfully  framed  ;'  *  Success  generally 
depends  on  acting  prudently,  steadily,  and  vigorously,  m 
what  we  undertake.* 

But  when  two  adverbs  are  joined  by  a  conjunction,  they 
are  not  parted  by  the  comma  :  as,  *  Some  men  sin  deli- 
berately and  presumptuously  ;*  <  There  is  no  middle 
state  ;  we  must  live  virtuously  or  vitiously.' 

Rule  vii.  When  participles  are  followed  by  something 
that  depends  on  them,  they  are  generally  separated  from 
the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  a  comma :  as,    *  The  king, 


238  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.         (Comma. 

afiproving  the  plan^  put  it  in  execution  ;'  *  His  talents, 
formed  for  great  enterprises^  could  not  fail  of  rendering 
him  conspicuous  ;'  '  All  mankind  compose  one  family, 
assembled  under  the  eye  of  one  common  Father.' 

Rule  viii.  When  a  conjunction  is  divided  by  a  phrase 
or  sentence  from  the  verb  to  which  it  belongs,  such  inter- 
vening phrase  has  usually  a  comma  at  each  extremity  : 
as,  '  They  set  out  early,  and  before  the  close  of  the  day, 
arrived  at  the  destined  place.' 

Rule  ix.  Expressions  in  a  direct  address,  are  separated 
from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas  :  as,  *  My  son, 
give  me  thy  heart  :*  ^  I  am  obliged  to  you,  myfrie?ids,  for 
your  many  favours.' 

Rule  x.  The  case  or  nominative  absolute,  and  the  in- 
finitive mood  absolute,  are  separated  by  commas  from  the 
body  of  the  sentence  :  as,  *  His  father  dying,  he  succeed- 
ed to  the  estate  ;'  *  At  length,  their  ministry  performed, 
and  race  well  run,  they  left  the  world  in  peace  j'  *  To  con- 
fess the  truth,  I  was  much  in  fault.* 

Rule  xi.  Nouns  in  apposition,  that  is,  nouns  added  to 
other  nouns  in  the  same  cas«,  by  way  of  explication  or  il- 
lustration, when  accompanied  with  adjuncts,  are  set  off  by 
commas  :  as,  *  Paul,  the  apostle  of  the  Gentiles,  was  emi- 
nent for  his  zeal  and  knowledge  ;'  '  The  butterfly,  child 
of  the  summer,  flutters  in  the  sun.' 

But  if  such  nouns  are  single,  or  only  form  a  proper 
nanie,  they  are  not  divided  :  as,  *  Paul  the  apostle  j'  *  The 
emperor  Antoninus  wrote  an  excellent  book.* 

Rule  xii.  Simple  members  of  sentences  connected  by 
comparatives,  are  for  the  most  part  distinguished  by  a 
comma :  as,  *  M  tiie  hart  panteth  after  the  water  brooks, 
so  doth  my  soul  pant  after  thee  ;'  *  Better  is  a  dinner  of 
herbs  witii  love,  t/ian  a  stalled  ox  and  hatred  with  it.' 

If  the  members  in  comparative  sentences  are  short,  the 
comma  is,  in  general,  better  omitted  :  as,  *  How  much 
detter  is  it  to  get  wisdom  tha?i  gold  I'  *  Mankind  act  often' 
er  from  caprice  t/mn  reason.* 

Rule  xiii.  When  words  are  placed  in  opposition  to 
each  other,  or  with  some  marked  variety,  tl^ey  require  to 
be  distinguished  by  a  comma  ;  as, 


I 


Comma.)  pUNflTiTATioir;  239 

<  Tho'  deep,  yet  clear  ;  tho*  gentle,  yet  not  dull ; 
Strong,  without  ragej  without  overflowing,  full.' 

*  Good  men,  in  this  frail,  imperfect  state,  are  often  found, 
not  only  in  union  nvith^  but  in  opposition  ^o,  the  views  and 
conduct  of  one  another.* 

Sometimes  when  the  word  with  which  the  last  preposi- 
tion agrees,  is  single,  it  is  better  to  omit  the  comma  before 
it :  as,  '  Many  states  were  in  alliance  ivith^  and  under  the 
protection  o/Rome.' 

The  same  rule  and  restriction  must  be  applied  when 
two  or  more  nouns  refer  to  the  same  preposition  :  as,  *  He 
was  composed  both  under  the  threatening,  and  at  the  ap- 
proach, o/'a  cruel  and  lingering  death  ;'  *  He  was  not  only 
the  king,  but  the  father  o/*his  people.' 

Rule  xiv.  A  remarkable  expression,  or  a  short  ob- 
servation, somewhat  in  the  manner  of  a  quotation,  may  be 
properly  marked  with  a  comma:  as,  'It  hurts  a  man's 
pride  to  say,  I  do  not  know  ;'  *  Plutarch  calls  lying,  the 
\ice  of  slaves.' 

Rule  xv.  Relative  pronouns  are  connective  words,  and 
generally  admit  a  comma  Ik  fore  them  :  as,  '  He  preaches 
sublimely,  who  lives  a  sober,  righteous,  and  pious  life  ;* 

*  There  is  no  charm  in  the  female  sex,  ivhich  can  supply 
the  place  of  virtue.* 

But  when  two  members,  or  phrases,  are  closely  con- 
nected by  a  relative,  restraining  the  general  notion  of  the 
antecedent  to  a  pardcular  sense,  the  comma  should  be 
omitted :  as,  '  Self-denial  is  the  sacrifice  which  virtue 
must  make  :'  '  A  man  who  is  of  a  detracting  spirit,  will 
misconstrue  the  most  innocent  words  that  can  be  put  to- 
gether.* In  the  latter  example,  the  assertion  is  not  of  '  a 
man  in  general,'  but  of  *  a  man  who  is  of  a  detracting 
spirit ;'  and  therefore  they  should  not  be  separated. 

The  fifteenth  rule  applies  equally  to  cases  in  which  the 
relative  is  not  expressed,  but  understood  :  as,  '  It  was 
from  piety,  warm  and  unaffected,  that  his  morals  derived 
strength.'  '  This  sentiment,  habitual  and  strong,  in- 
fluenced his  whole  conduct.'  In  both  of  these  examples, 
the  relative  and  verb  which  ivas,  are  understood. 

Rule  xvi,  A  simple  member  of  a  sentence,  contained 
within  another,  or  following  another,  must  be  distinguish- 


240  ENGLISH  GRAMMARr         (Comma. 

ed  by  the  comma :  as,  *  To  improve  time,  whilst  we  are 
blessed  with  health,  will  smooth   the  bed  of  sickness.* 

*  Very  often,  while  we  are  complaining  of  the  vanity,  and 
the  evils  of  human  life,  we  make  that  vanity,  and  we  in- 
crease those  evils.' 

If,  however,  the  members  succeeding  each  other,  are 
very  closely  connected,  the  comma  is  unnecessary  :  as, 
'  Revelation  tells  us  how  we  may  attain  happiness.* 

When  a  verb  in  the  infinitive  mood,  follows  its  govern- 
ing verb,  with  several  words  between  them,  those  words 
should  generally  have  a  comma  at  the  end  of  them  :  as, 

*  It  ill  becomes  good  and  wise  men,  to  oppose  and  degrade 
one  another.' 

Several  verbs  in  the  infinitive  mood,  having  a  common 
dependence,  and  succeeding  one  another,  are  also  divided 
by  commas  :  as,  *  To  relieve  the  indigent,  to  comfort  the 
afflicted,  to  protect  the  innocent,  to  reward  the  deserving, 
are  humane  and  noble  employments.' 

Rule  xvii.  When  the  verb  to  be  is  followed  by  a  verb 
in  the  infinitive  mood,  which,  by  transposition,  might  be 
made  the  nominative  case  to  it,  the  former  is  generally 
separated  from  the  latter  verb,  by  a  comma  :  as,  *  The 
most  obvious  remedy  is,  to  withdraw  from  all  associations 
with  bad  men/  '  The  first  and  most  obvious  remedy 
against  the  infection,  is,  to  withdraw  from  all  associations 
with  bad  men.* 

Rule  xviii.  When  adjuncts  or  circumstances  are  of 
importance,  and  often  when  the  natural  order  of  them  is 
inverted,  they  may  be  set  off  by  commas  :  as,  '  Virtue 
must  be  formed  and  supported,  not  by  unfrequent  acts, 
but  by  daily  and  repeated  exertions.*  '  Vices,  like  sha- 
dows, towards  the  evening  of  life,  grow  great  and  mon- 
strous.* '  Our  interests  are  interwoven  by  threads  innu- 
merable ;'  *  By  threads  innumerable,  our  interests  are  in- 
terwoven.' 

Rule  xix.  Where  a  verb  is  understood,  a  comma  may 
often  be  properly  introduced.  This  is  a  general  rule, 
which,  besides  comprising  some  of  the  preceding  rules, 
will  apply  to  many  cases  not  determined  by  any  of  them : 
as,  '  From  law  arises  security ;  from  security,  curiosity  ; 
from  curiosity,  knowledge.'    In  this  example,  the  verb 


Semicolon.)  punctuation.  24jl 

*  arises*  is  understood  before  *  curiosity*  and  *  knowledge  ;* 
at  which  words  a  considerable  pause  is  necessary. 

Rule  xx.  The  words,  way,  so,  hence,  again,  Jirst,  se- 
condly,  formerly,  now,  lastly,  once  more,  adove  all,  on  the 
contrary,  in  the  next  place,  in  short,  and  all  other  words 
and  phrases  of  the  same  kind,  must  generally  be  separated 
from  the  context  by  a  comma  :  as,  *  Remember  thy  best 
and  first  friend  ;  formerly,  the  supporter  of  thy  infancy, 
and  the  guide  of  thy  childliood  ;  nonu,  the  guardian  of  thy 
youth,  and  the  hope  of  thy  coming  years.*  *  He  feared 
want,  hence  he  over-valued  riches.*  '  This  conduct  may 
heal  the  difference,  nay,  it  may  constantly  prevent  any  in 
future.*  *  Finally,  I  shall  only  repeat  what  has  been  often 
justly  said.*  '  If  the  spring  put  forth  no  blossoms,  in  sum- 
mer there  will  be  no  beauty,  and  in  autumn,  no  fruit ;  so, 
if  youth  be  trifled  away  without  improvement,  riper  years 
may  be  contemptible,  and  old  age  miserable.* 

In  many  of  the  foregoing  rules  and  examples,  great  re- 
gard must  be  paid  to  the  length  of  the  clauses,  and  the 
proportion  wliich  they  bear  to  one  another.  An  attention 
to  the  sense  of  any  passage,  and  to  the  dear,  easy  com- 
munication of  it,  will,  it  is  presumed,  with  the  aid  of  the 
preceding  rules,  enable  the  student  to  adjust  the  proper 
pauses,  and  the  places  for  inserting  the  commas. 

CHAPTER  II. 

OF  THE  SEMICOLON. 

The  Semicolon  is  used  for  dividing  a  com- 
pound sentence  into  two  or  more  parts,  not  so 
closely  connected  as  those  which  are  separated 
by  a  comma,  nor  yet  so  little  dependent  on  each 
other,  as  those  A^hich  are  distinguished  by  a 
colon. 

The  semicolon  is  sometimes  used,  when  the  preceding 
member  of  the  sentence  does  not  of  itself  give  a  complete 
sense,  but  depends  on  the  following  clause  :  and  some- 
times when  the  sense  of  that  member  would  be  complete 
without  the  concluding  one  :  as  in  the  following  instances  : 
^  As  the  desire  of  approbation,  when  it  works  according  to 
W 


242  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  (Coloil.' 

reason,  improves  the  amiable  part  of  our  species  in  every 
thing  that  is  laudable  ;  so  nothing  is  more  destructive  to 
them  when  it  is  governed  by  vanity  and  folly.* 

*  Experience  teaches  us,  that  an  entire  retreat  from 
wprldly  affairs,  is  not  what  religion  requires  :  nor  does  it 
even  enjoin  a  long  retreat  from  them.* 

*  Straws  swim  upon  the  surface  ;  but  pearls  lie  at  the 
bottom* 

*  Philosophers  assert,  that  Nature  is  unlimited  in  her 
operations  ;  that  she  has  inexhaustible  treasures  in  re- 
serve ;  that  knowledge  will  always  be  progressive  ;  and 
that  all  future  generations  will  continue  to  make  discov- 
eries, of  which  we  have  not  the  least  idea.' 

CHAPIER  III. 

OF   THE  COLON. 

The  Colon  is  used  to  divide  a  sentence  into 
two  or  more  parts,  less  connected  than  those 
which  are  separated  by  a  semicolon  ;  but  not  so 
independent  as  separate  distinct  sentences. 

The  colon  may  be  properly  applied  in  the  three  follow- 
ing cases. 

1.  When  a  member  of  a  sentence  is  complete  in  itself, 
but  followed  by  some  supplemental  remark,  or  further 
illustration  of  the  subject :  as,  *  Nature  felt  her  inability 
to  extricate  herself  from  the  conseqiKoces  of  guilt  :  the 
gospel  reveals  the  plan  of  Divine  iiiter.>osition  and  aid.* 
*  Nature  confessed  some  atonement  to  be  necessary  :  the 
gospel  discovers  that  the  necessary  atonement  is  made.* 

2.  When  several  semicolons  have  preceded,  and  a  still 
greater  pause  is  necessary,  in  order  to  mark  the  connect- 
ing or  concluding  sentiment  :  as,  *  A  di\ine  legislator, 
uttering  his  voice  from  heaven  ;  an  almighty  governor, 
stretching  forth  his  arm  to  punish  or  reward  ;  informing 
us  of  peri'Ctual  rest  prepared  hereafter  for  the  righteous, 
and  of  indignation  and  wrath  awaiting  the  wicked  :  these 
are  the  considerations  which  overawe  the  world,  which 
support  integrity,  and  check  guilt.' 

S.  The  Colon  is  commonly  used  when  an  example,  a 
-potation,  or  a  speech  is  introduced  :  as,  *  The  Scriptures 


Period.)  punctuation.  24$ 

give  us  an  amiable  representation  of  the  Deity,  in  these 
words  :  '  God  is  love.*  *  He  was  often  heard  to  say  :  *  I 
have  done  with  the  world,  and  I  am  willing  to  leave  it.* 

The  propriety  of  using  a  colon,  or  semicolon,  is  some- 
times determined  by  a  conjunction's  being  expressed,  or 
not  expressed  :  as,  '  Do  not  flatter  yourselves  with  the 
hope  of  perfect  happiness  :  there  is  no  such  thing  in  the 
world  '  '  Do  not  flatter  yourselves  with  the  hope  of  per^ 
feet  happiness  ;  for  there  is  no  such  thing  in  the  world.' 


CHAPTER  IV. 

OF  THE    PERIOD. 

Wh  e  n  a  sentence  is  complete  and  indepen- 
dent, and  not  connected  in  construction  with  the 
following  sentence,  it  is  marked  with  a  Period. 

Some  sentences  are  independent  of  each  other,  both  in 
their  sense  and  construction  :  as,  *  Fear  God.  Honour 
the  king.  Have  charity  towards  all  men.*  Others  are 
independent  only  in  their  grammatical  construction  :  as, 
*  The  Supreme  Being  changes  not,  either  in  his  desire  to 
promote  our  happiness,  or  in  the  plan  of  his  administra- 
tion. One  light  always  shines  upon  us  from  above.  One 
clear  and  direct  path  is  always  pointed  out  to  man.* 

A  period  may  sometimes  be  admitted  between  two 
sentences,  though  they  are  joined  by  a  disjunctive  or  co- 
pulative conjunction.  For  the  quality  of  the  point  does 
not  always  depend  on  the  connective  particle,  but  on  the 
sense  and  structure  of  sentences  :  as,  *  llecreations, 
though  they  may  be  of  an  innocent  kind,  require  steady 
government,  to  keep  them  within  a  due  and  limited  pro- 
vince But  such  as  are  of  an  irregular  and  vicious  natvu'e, 
are  not  to  be  governed,  but  to  be  banished  from  every 
well-regulated  mind.* 

*  He  who  lifts  himself  up  to  the  observation  and  notice 
of  the  world,  is,  of  all  men,  the  least  likely  to  avoid  cen- 
sure.  For  he  draws  upon  himself  a  thousand  eyes,  that 
will  narrowly  inspect  him  in  every  part.* 

The  period  should  be  used  after  every  abbreviated  word  : 
as,  «  M.  S.    P.  S.     N.  B.     A.  D.     O.  S.     N.  S.*  kc. 


244         ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.      (Interrogation, 
CHAPTER  V. 

OF    THE    DASH,    NOTES    OF    INTERROGATION    AND 
EXCLAMATION,    AND  THE  PARENTHESIS. 


The  Dash. 

The  Dash,  though  often  used  improperly  by  hasty  and 
incoherent  writers,  may  be  introduced  with  propriety, 
where  the  sentence  breaks  off  abruptly  ;  where  a  signifi- 
cant pause  is  required  ;  or  where  there  is  an  unexpected 
turn  in  the  sentiment :  as,  *  If  thou  art  he,  so  much  re- 
spected once—  but,  oh  !  how  fallen  !  how  degraded  1*  *  If 
acting  conformably  to  the  will  of  our  Creator  ;— if  pro- 
inoting  the  welfare  of  mankind  around  us  ; — if  securing 
our  own  happiness  ; — are  objects  of  the  highest  mo- 
ment : — then  we  are  loudly  called  upon,  to  cultivate  and 
extend  the  great  interests  of  religion  and  virtue.* 

*  Here  lies  the  great False  marble,  where  ? 

Nothing  but  sordid  dust  lies  here.' 

Besides  the  points  which  mark  the  pauses  in  discourse^ 
there  are  characters,  which  denote  a  different  modulation 
of  voice,  in  correspondence  to  the  sense.     These  are, 
The  Interrogation  point,     ? 
The  Exclamation  point,      ! 
The  Parenthesis,  (     ) 

Interrogation. 

A  note  of  Interrogation  is  used  at  the  end  of  an  interro- 
gative sentence  ;  that  is,  when  a  question  is  asked  :  as, 
'  Who  will  accompany  me  ?'  '  Shall  we  alv/ays  be  friends  ?* 

Questions  which  a  person  asks  himself  in  contempla- 
tion, ought  to  be  terminated  by  points  of  interrogation  : 
as,  *  Who  adorned  the  heavens  with  such  exquisite  beau- 
ty ?'  *  At  whose  command  do  the  planets  perform  their 
constant  revolutions  V 

A  point  of  interrogation  is  improper  after  sentences 
which  are  not  questions,  but  only  expressions  of  admira- 
tion, or  of  some  other  emotion. 

*  How  many  instances  have  we  of  chastity  and  excel- 
lence in  the  fair  sex  !* 

'  With  what  prudence  does  the  son  of  Sirach  advise  us 
in  the  choice  of  ovir  companions  I' 


Parenthesis.)         punctuation.  245 

A  note  of  interrogation  should  not  be  employed,  in 
cases  where  it  is  only  said  a  question  has  been  asked,  and 
where  the  words  are  not  used  as  a  question.  '  The  Cy- 
prians asked  me,  why  I  wept.*  To  give  this  sentence  the 
interrogative  form,  it  should  be  expressed  thus  :  *  The 
Cyprians  said  to  me,  '  Why  dost  thou  weep  ?* 
Exclamation. 

The  note  of  Exclamation  is  applied  to  expressions  of 
sudden  emotion,  surprise,  joy,  grief,  8cc.  and  also  to  in- 
vocations or  addresses  :  as,  '  My  friend  !  this  conduct 
amazes  me  !'  *  Bless  the  Lord,  O  my  soul  !  and  forget 
not  all  his  benefits  !* 

*  Oh  !  had  we  both  our  humble  state  maintained, 
And  safe  in  peace  and  poverty  remain*d  !* 

'  Hear  me,  O  Lord  !  for  thy  loving  kindness  is  great  !* 
It  is  difficult,  in  some  cases,  to  distinguish  between  an 
interrogative  and  exclamatory  sentence  ;  but  a  sentence, 
in  which  any  wonder  or  admirati(3!i  is  expressed,  and  no 
answer  either  expected  or  implied,  may  be  always  pro- 
perly terminated  by  a  note  of  exclamation  :  as,  *  How 
much  vanity  in  the  pursuits  of  men  1'  '  Who  can  suffi- 
ciently express  the  goodness  of  our  Creator  1*  *  What  is- 
more  amiable  than  virtue  1* 

The  interrogation  and  exclamation  points  are  indeter- 
minate as  to  their  quantity  or  time,  and  may  be  equivalent 
in  that  respect  to  a  semicolon,  a  colon,  or  a  period,  as  the 
sense  may  require.  They  mark  an  elevation  of  the  voice. 
I'he  utility  of  the  points  of  Interrogation  and  Exclama- 
tion, appears  from  the  following  examples,  in  which  the 
meaning  is  signified  and  discriminated  solely  by  the  points. 

*  What  condescension  1' 

*  What  condescension  V 

*  How  great  was  the  sacrifice  !* 

*  How  great  was  the  sacrifice  V 

Parenthesis. 
A  Parenthesis  is  a  clause  containing  some  necessary 
information,  or  useful  remark,  introduced  into  the  body  of 
a  sentence  obliquely,  and  which  may  be  omitted  without 
injuring  the  construction  :  as. 

Know  then  this  truth  (enough  for  man  to  know) 
Virtue  alone  is  happiness  below.' 


246      ENGLISH  GRAMMAR,       (ApoStrophc,  &C, 

*  And  was  the  ransom  paid  ?  It  was  ;  and  paid 
(What  can  exalt  his  bounty  more  ?)  for  thee.* 

*  To  gain  a  posthumous  reputation,  is  to  save  four  or 
five  letters  (for  what  is  a  name  besides  ?)  from  oblivion/ 
*  Know  ye  not,  brethren  (for  I  speak  to  them  that  knov^ 
the  law)  how  that  the  law  hath  dominion  over  a  man  as 
long  as  he  liveth  ?' 

If  the  incidental  clause  is  short,  or  perfectly  coincides 
•with  the  rest  of  the  sentence,  it  is  not  proper  to  use  the 
parenthetical  characters.  The  following  instances  are 
therefore  improper  uses  of  the  parenthesis.  *  Speak  you 
(who  saw)  his  wonders  in  the  deep.*  '  Every  planet  (as 
the  Creator  has  made  nothing  in  vain)  is  most  probably 
inhabited.*  *  He  found  them  asleep  again  ;  (for  their  eyes 
were  heavy)  neither  knew  they  what  to  answer  him.* 

The  parenthesis  marks  a  moderate  depression  of  the 
voice,  and  may  be  accompanied  with  every  point  which 
the  sense  would  require,  if  the  parenthetical  characters 
were  omitted.  It  ought  to  terminate  with  the  same  kind 
of  stop  which  the  member  has,  that  precedes  it ;  and  to 
contain  tl^at  stop  within  the  parenthetical  marks.  We 
must,  however,  except  cases  of  interrogation  and  excla- 
mation :  as,  '  While  they  wish  to  please  (and  why  should 
they  not  wish  it  ?)  they  disdain  dishonourable  means.*  *  It 
was  represented  by  an  analogy  (Oh,  how  inadequate  !) 
which  was  borrowed  from,*  Sec. 


There  are  other  characters,  which  are  frequently  made 
use  of  in  composition,  and  which  may  be  explained  in 
this  place,  viz. 

An  Apostrophe,  marked  thus  '  is  used  to  abbreviate  or 
shorten  a  word  :  as,  Uis  for  it  is  ;  tho*  for  though  ;  e*en 
for  even  ;  judg\l  iov  judged.  Its  chief  use  is  to  show  the 
genitive  case  of  nouns ;  as,  *  A  man's  property ;  a  wo- 
man's ornament.* 

A  Caret,  marked  thus  a  is  placed  where  some  word 
happens  to  be  left  out  in  writing,  and  which  is  inserted 
over  the  line.  This  mark  is  also  called  a  circumflex, 
when  placed  over  a  particular  vowel,  to  denote  a  long 
syllable:  as,  *  Euphrates.* 


PUNCTUATION.  247 

A  Hyphen,  marked  thus  -  is  employed  in  connecting 
compounded  words :  as,  *  Lap-dog>  tea-pot,  pre-exist- 
cnce,  self-love,  to-morrow,  mother-in-law/ 

It  is  also  used  when  a  word  is  divided,  and  the  former 
part  is  written  or  printed  at  the  end  of  one  line,  and  the 
latter  part  at  the  beginning  of  another.  In  this  case,  it  is 
placed  at  the  end  of  the  first  line,  not  at  the  beginning  of 
the  second. 

The  Acute  Accent,  marked  thus  ' :  as,  <  Fancy*  The 
Grave,  thus' :  as,  '  Favour.^ 

In  English,  the  Accentual  marks  are  chiefly  used  in 
spelling-books  and  dictionaries,  to  mark  the  syllables 
which  require  a  particular  stress  of  the  voice  in  pronun- 
ciation. 

The  stress  is  laid  on  long  and  short  syllables  indiscri- 
minately. In  order  to  distinguish  the  one  from  the  other, 
some  writers  of  dictionaries  have  placed  the  grave  on  the 
former,  and  the  acute  on  the  latter,  in  this  manner :  *  Mi- 
nor, mineral,  lively,  lived,  rival,  river.* 

The  proper  mark  to  distinguish  a  long  syllable,  is 
this  - :  as,  '  Rosy  :*  and  a  short  one  this  '-' :  as,  *  Folly.' 
This  last  mark  is  called  a  breve. 

A  Diaeresis,  thus  marked "  ,  consists  of  two  points 
placed  over  one  of  the  two  vowels  that  would  otherwise 
make  a  diphthong,  and  parts  them  into  two  syllables  :  as, 
*  Creator,  coadjutor,  aerial.* 

A  Section,  marked  thus  §,  is  the  division  of  a  discourse, 
or  chapter,  into  less  parts  or  portions. 

A  Paragraph  1[  denotes  the  beginning  of  a  new  subject, 
or  a  sentence  not  connected  with  the  foregoing.  This 
character  is  chiefly  used  in  the  Old,  and  in  the  New  Tes- 
taments. 

A  Quotation  "  ".  Two  inverted  commas  are  generally 
placed  at  the  beginning  of  a  phrase  or  a  passage,  which  is 
quoted  or  transcribed  from  the  speaker  or  author  in  his 
own  words  ;  and  two  commas  in  their  direct  position,  are 
placed  at  the  conclusion  :  as, 

"  The  proper  study  of  mankind  is  man.'* 

Crotchets  or  Brackets  [  J  serve  to  enclose  a  word  op 
sentence,  which  is  to  be  explained  in  a  note  or  the  ex- 
planation itself?  or  ti  word  or  a  sentence  which  is  in- 


248  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

tended  to  supply  .some  deficiency,  or  to  rectify  some 
mistake. 

An  Index  or  Hand  |G^  points  out  a  remarkable  pas- 
sage, or  something  that  requires  particular  attention. 

A  Frace   c  is  used  in  poetry  at  the  ©nd  of  a  triplet  or 

three  lines,  which  have  the  same  rhynve. 

Braces  are  also  used  to  connect  a  number  of  words  with 
one  common  term,  and  are  introduced  to  prevent  a  repe- 
tition in  writing  or  printing. 

An  Asterisk,  or  little  star  *,  directs  the  reader  to  some 
note  in  the  margin,  or  at  the  bottom  of  the  page.  Two 
or  three  asterisks  generally  denote  the  omission  of  some 
letters  in  a  word,  or  of  some  bold  or  indelicate  expression, 
or  some  defect  in  the  manuscript. 

An  Ellipsis is  also  used,  when  some  letters  in  a 

word,  or  some  words  in  a  verse,  are  omitted:  as,  /  The 
k — g,'  for  '  the  king.* 

An  Obelisk,  which  is  marked  thus  t,  and  Parallels  thus  JI, 
together  with  the  letters  of  the  Alphabet,  and  figures,  are 
used  as  references  to  the  margin  or  bottom  of  the  page. 
Paragraphs. 

It  may  not  be  improper  to  insert,  in  this  place,  a  few 
general  directions  respecting  the  division  of  a  composition 
into  paragraphs. 

Different  subjects,  unless  they  are  very  short,  or  very 
numerous  in  small  compass,  should  be  separated  into  pa- 
ragraphs. 

When  one  subject  is  continued  to  a  considerable  length, 
the  larger  divisions  of  it  should  be  put  into  paragraphs. 
And  it  will  have  a  good  effect  to  form  the  breaks,  when  it 
can  properly  be  done,  at  sentiments  of  the  most  weightj. 
or  that  call  for  particular  attention. 

The  facts,  premises,  and  conclusions,  of  a  subject, 
sometimes  naturally  point  out  the  separations  into  para- 
graphs :  and  each  of  these,  when  of  great  length,  will 
again  require  subdivisions  at  their  most  distinctive  parts. 

In  cases  which  require  a  connected  subject  to  be  form- 
ed into  several  paragraphs,  a  suitable  turn  of  expresbion, 
exhibiting  the  connexion  of  the  broken  parts,  will  givei 
beauty  and  force  to  the  division. 


CAPITAL  BETTERS.  24^ 

Directions  resfiecting  the  use  of  Cafiital  Letters. 
It  was  formerly  the  custom  to  begin  every  noun  with  a 
capital :  but  as  this  practice  was  troublesome,  and  gave 
the  writing  or  printing  a  crowded  and  confused  appear- 
ance, it  has  been  discontinued.  It  is,  however,  very  pro- 
per to  begin  with  a  capital, 

1 .  The  first  word  of  every  book,  chapter,  letter,  note, 
or  any  other  piece  of  writing. 

2.  The  first  word  after  a  period  ;  and,  if  the  two  sen- 
tences^ are  totally  inde/ie?identy  after  a  note  of  interrogation 
er  exclamation. 

But  if  a  number  of  interrogative  or  exclamatory  sen- 
tences, arc  thrown  into  one  general  group  ;  or  if  the  con- 
struction of  the  latter  sentences  depends  on  the  former, 
all  of  them,  except  the  first,  may  begin  with  a  small  let- 
ter :  as,  *  How  long,  ye  simple  ones,  will  ye  love  sim- 
plicity ?  and  the  scorners  delight  in  their  scorning  ?  and 
fools  hate  knowledge  ?*  *  Alas  I  how  different !  yet  how 
like  the  same  I' 

3.  The  appellations  of  the  Deity  :  as,  *  God,  Jehovah, 
the  Almighty,  the  Supreme  Being,  the  Lo)d,  Providence, 
the  Messiah,  the  Holy  Spirit.* 

4.  Proper  names  of  persons,  places,  streets,  mountains, 
rivers,  ships  :  as,  *  George,  York,  the  Strand,  the  Alps, 
the  Thames,  the  Seahorse.* 

5.  Adjectives  derived  from  the  proper  names  of  places  j 
as,  *  Grecian,  Roman,  English,  French,  and  Italian.* 

6.  The  first  word  of  a  quotation,  introduced  after  a 
colon,  or  when  it  is  in  a  direct  form  :  as,  '  Always  re- 
member this  ancient  maxim  :  *  Know  thyself.*  '  Our 
great  Lawgiver  says,  *  Take  up  thy  cross  daily,  and  fol- 
low me.*  But  when  a  quotation  is  brought  in  obliquely- 
after  a  comma,  a  capital  is  unnecessaiy  :  as,  *  Solomon 
observes,  '  that  pride  goes  before  destruction.* 

The  first  word  of  an  example  may  also  very  properly 
begin  with  a  capital :  as,  *  Temptation  proves  our  virtue.* 

7.  Every  substanuve  and  principal  word  in  the  titles  of 
books  :  as,  *  Johnson's  Dictionary  of  the  English  Lan- 
guage ;*  <  Thomson's  Seasons  ;*  *  Roliin's  Ancient  His- 
tory.* 

8.  The  first  word  of  every  line  in  poetry. 


250  APPENDIX.  (Purity^ 

9.  The  pronoun  /,  and  the  interjection  0,  are  written 
in  capitals  ;  as,  *  I  write  :'  *  Hear,  O  earth  !' 

Other  words  besides  the  preceding,  may  begin  with 
capitals,  when  they  are  remarkably  emphatical,  or  the 
principal  subject  of  the  composition. 


APPENDIX  : 

Containing  rules  and  observations  for  assisting  young  fier- 
sons  to  write  with  persfiicidty  and  accuracy.  To  be  stu- 
died after  they  have  acquired  a  £omp.etent  knowledge  of 
Mngliah  Grainmar. 

PERSPICUITY 
Is  the  fundamental  quality  of  style  :  a  quality  so  essential 
in  every  kind  of  writing,  that  for  the  want  of  it  nothing 
can  atone.  It  is  not  to  be  considered  as  merely  a  sort  of 
negative  virtue,  or  freedom  from  defect.  It  has  higher 
merit :  it  is  a  degree  of  positive  beauty.  We  are  pleased 
with  an  author,  and  consider  him  as  deserving  praise,  who 
frees  us  from  all  fatigue  of  searching  for  his  meaning  t, 
who  carries  us  through  his  subject  without  any  embar- 
rassment or  confusion  ;  whose  style  flows  always  like  a 
limpid  stream,  through  which  we  see  to  the  very  bottom. 
The  study  of  perspicuity  and  accuracy  of  expression 
consists  of  two  parts  :  and  requires  attention,  first,  to  Sin- 
gle  Words  and  Phrases  ;  and  then,  to  the  Construction  of 
Sentences, 


PART  I. 

OF    PERSPICUITY  AND  ACCURACY  OF  EXPRESSION,   WITH 
RESPECT    TO    SINGLE    WORDS    AND    PHRASES. 

These  qualities  of  style,   considered   with  regard  to 
words   and  phrases,  require   the   following   properties  : 

PURITY,  PROPRIETY,  and  PRECISION. 

CHAPTER  I. 

OF    PURITY.  ' 

Purity  of  style  consists  in  the  use  of  such  words,  and 
such  constructions,  as  belong  to  the  idiom  of  the  language 


Propriety.)        perspicuity,  Sec.  251 

wliich  we  speak  ;  in  opposition  to  words  and  phrases  that 
are  taken  from  other  languages,  or  that  are  ungrammati- 
cal,  obsolete,  new-coined,  or  used  without  proper  authori* 
ty.  AH  such  words  and  phrases  as  the  following,  should 
be  avoided':  Quoth  he  ;  I  wist  not  ;  erewhile  ;  behest  ;  self- 
same ;  delicatessen  for  delicacy  ;  fiolitesse^  for  politeness  ; 
hauteur^  for  haughtiness  ;  incumberment^  connexity^  maf' 
tyrised^  for  encumbrance,  connexion,  martyred. 

The  introduction  of  foreign  and  learned  words,  unless 
where  necessity  requires  them,  should  never  be  admitted 
into  our  composition.  Barren  languages  may  need  such 
assistance,  but  ours  is  not  one  of  these  A  multitude  of 
Latin  words,  in  particular,  have,  of  late,  been  poured  in 
upon  our  lanirunge.  On  some  occasions,  they  give  an  ap- 
pearance of  eievution  and  dignity  to  style  ;  but  they  often 
render  it  stiff  and  apparently  foi  ced.  In  general,  a  plain, 
native  style,  is  more  intelliii.ible  Lo.  all  readers  ;  and,  by  a 
proper  management  of  words  it  can  be  made  as  strong  and 
expressive  as  this  Latinised  Eii^iish,  or  any  foreign  idioms. 

CHAFIER  II. 

OF    PllOPRIETY. 

PiiorRiETY  of  language  is  the  selection  of  such  words 
as  the  best  Uauge  has  appropriated  to  those  ideas,  which  we 
intend  to  express  by  them  ;  in  opposition  to  low  expres- 
sions, and  to  words  and  phrases  which  would  be  less  sig- 
nificant of  the  ideas  that  we  mean  to  convey.  Style  may 
be  pure,  that  is,  it  may  be  strictly  English,  without  Scotti- 
cisms or  Gallicisms,  or  ungrammatical,  irregular  expres- 
sions of  any  kind,  and  may,  nevertheless,  be  deficient  in 
propriety  :  for  the  words  may  be  ill  chosen,  not  adapted  to 
the  subject,  nor  fully  expressive  of  the  author's  sense. 

To  preserve  propriety,  therefore,  in  our  words  and 
phrases,  we  must  avoid  low  exfiressions ;  sufifily  words 
that  are  wanting ;  be  careful  not  to  use  the  same  word  in 
different  senses  ;  avoid  the  injudicious  use  of  techiical 
fihrases^  equivocal  or  ambiguous  words,  uninielligible  ex- 
firessionsy  and  all  such  words  and  fihrases  as  are  not  adapt- 
ed to  our  meaning. 

I.  Avoid  low  exfiressions  :  such  as,  <■  Topsy  turvy,  bur- 
ly burly,  pellmell ;  having  a  month's  mind  for  a  thing  j 


252  APPENDIX.  (Propriety. 

currying  favour  with  a  person ;  dancing  attendance  on  the 
great,'  &c. 

<  Meantime  the  Britons,  left  to  shift  for  themselves, 
were  forced  to  call  in  the  Saxons  for  their  defence.'  The 
phrase  *  left  to  shift  for  themselves^^  is  rather  a  low  phrase, 
and  too  much  in  the  familiar  style  to  be  proper  in  a  grave 
treatise. 

2.  Supfily  words  that  are  ivanting.  *  Arbitrary  power  I 
look  upon  as  a  greater  evil  than  anarchy  itself,  as  much  as 
a  savage  is  a  happier  state  of  life  than  a  slave  at  the  oar  :* 
it  should  have  been,  '  as  much  as  the  state  of  a  savage  is 
happier  than  that  of  a  slave  at  the  oar'  *  He  has  not  treat- 
ed this  subject  liberally,  by  the  views  of  others  as  well  as 
his  own  ;'  '  By  adverting  to  the  views  of  others,'  would 
have  been  better.  *  This  generous  action  greatly  increased 
his  former  services  ;'  it  should  have  been,  *  greatly  in- 
creased the  merit  of  his  former  services.*  '  By  the  plea- 
sures of  the  imagination  or  fancy  (which  I  shall  use  pro- 
miscuously) I  here  mean,'  See.  This  passage  ought  to 
have  had  the  word  '  terms'  supplied,  which  would  have 
made  it  correct :  *  terms  which  I  shall  use  promiscuously.' 

It  may  be  proper  in  this  place  to  observe,  that  articles 
and  prepositions  are  sometimes  improperly  omitted  :  as 
in  the  following  instances  :  '  How  immense  the  difference 
between  the  pious  and  profane  1'  '  Death  is  the  common 
lot  of  all ;  of  good  men  and  bad.'  They  should  have  had 
the  article  and  preposition  repeated  :  '  How  immense  the 
difference  between  the  pious  and  the  profane  ?'  '  Death  is 
the  common  lot  of  all ;  o/good  men  and  o/'bad.* 

The  repetilion  of  articles  and  prepositions  is  proper, 
when  we  intend  to  point  out  the  objects  of  which  we  speak, 
as  distinguished  from  each  other,  or  in  contrast :  and 
when  we  wish  that  the  reader's  attention  should  rest  on 
that  distinction  :  as,  *  Our  sight  is  at  once  the  most  de- 
lightful, and  the  most  useful  of  all  our  senses.* 

3.  Ill  the  &amc  sentence,  be  cartful  not  to  use  the  sam^ 
word  too  frequently,  nor  in  different  senses.  ^  One  may 
have  an  air  which  proceeds  from  a  just  sufficiency  and 
knowledge  of  the  matter  before  him,  ivhich  may  naturally 
produce  some  motions  of  his  head  and  body,  ivhich  might 
become  the  bench  better  than  the  bar/ 


Propriety.)  perspicuity,  Sec.  255 

The  pronoun  lijhich  is  here  thrice  used,  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  throw  obscurity  over  the  sentence. 

*  Gregory  favoured  the  undertaking,  for  no  other  rea- 
son than  this,  that  the  manager,  in  countenance,  favoured 
his  friend.*     It  should  have  been,  *  resembled  his  friend.* 

*  Charity  expands  our  hearts  in  love  to  God  and  man  : 
it  is  by  the  virtue  of  charity  that  the  rich  are  blessed,  and 
the  poor  supplied.*  In  this  sentence,  the  word  '  charity* 
is  improperly  used  in  two  different  senses  ;  for  the  highest 
benevolence,  and  for  almsgiving. 

4.  Avoid  the  injudicious  use  of  technical  terms.  To  in- 
form those  who  do  not  understand  sea-phrases,  that  *  We 
tacked  to  the  larboard,  and  stood  off  to  sea,'  would  be  ex- 
pressing ourselves  very  obscurely.  Technical  phrases 
not  being  in  current  use,  but  only  the  peculiar  dialect  of  a 
particular  class,  we  should  never  use  them  but  when  we 
know  they  will  be  understood. 

5.  Avoid  equivocal  or  ambiguous  words.  The  following 
sentences  are  exceptionable  in  this  respect.  '  As  for  such 
animals  as  are  mortal  or  noxious,  we  have  a  right  to  de- 
stroy them.*  *  I  long  since  learned  to  like  nothing  but 
what  you  do.*  *  He  aimed  at  nothing  less  than  the  crown,' 
may  denote  either,  *  Nothing  was  less  aimed  at  by  him 
than  the  crown,'  or  '  Nothing  inferior  to  the  crown  could 
satisfy  his  ambition.*  ^  /  will  have  mercy^  and  not  sacri- 
fice.* The  first  part  of  this  sentence  denotes,  *  I  will  ex- 
ercise mercy  ;'  whereas  it  is  in  this  place  employed  to  sig- 
nify, *  I  require  others  to  exercise  it.*  The  translation 
should  therefore  have  been  accommodated  to  these  dif- 
ferent meanings.  *  They  were  both  much  more  ancient 
among  the  Persians,  than  Zoroaster  or  Zerdusht.*  The 
or  in  this  sentence  is  equivocal.  It  serves  either  as  a  copu- 
lative to  synonymous  words,  or  a  disjunctive  of  different 
things.  If,  therefore,  the  student  should  not  know  that 
Zoroaster  and  Zerdusht  mean  the  same  person,  he  will 
mistake  the  sense.  '  The  rising  tomb  a  lofty  column 
bore  :*  ^  And  thus  the  son  the  fervent  sire  addressed.'  Did 
the  tomb  bear  the  column,  or  the  column  the  tomb  ?  Did 
the  son  address  the  sire,  or  the  sire  the  son  ? 

6.  Avoid  unintelligible  and  inconsistent  words  or  fihruites. 
^  I   have   observed,'    says   Steele,    *  that  tlie   superiority 

X 


254  APPENDIX.  (Propriety. 

among  these  coffee-house  politicians,  proceeds  from  an 
opinion  of  gallantry  and  fashion.'  This  sentence,  consi- 
dered in  itseiiP,  evidently  conveys  no  meaning.  First,  it  is 
not  said  whose  opinion,  their  own,  or  that  of  others  :  Se- 
condly, it  is  not  said  what  opinion,  or  of  what  sort,  favour- 
able or  unfavourable,  true  or  false,  but  in  general,  *  an 
opinion  of  gallantry  and  fashion,'  which  contains  no  defi- 
nite expression  of  any  meaning.  With  the  joint  assist- 
ance of  the  context,  reflection,  and  conjecture,  we  shall 
perhaps  conclude  that  the  author  intended  to  say  ;  '  That 
the  rank  among  these  politicians  was  determined  by  the 
opinion  generally  entertained  of  the  rank,  in  point  of  gal- 
lantry and  fashion,  that  each  of  them  had  attained.' 

*  This  temper  of  mind,'  says  an  author,  speaking  of 
humility,  '  keeps  our  understanding  tight  about  us.* 
Whether  the  author  had  any  meaning  in  this  expression, 
or  what  it  was,  is  not  easy  to  determine. 

Sometimes  a  writer  runs  on  in  a  specious  verbocity, 
amusing  his  reader  with  synonymous  terms  and  identical 
propositions,  well-turned  periods,  and  high-soundijog 
words  :  but  at  the  same  time,  using  those  words  so  inde- 
finitely, that  the  reader  can  neither  afilix  no  meaning  at  all  to 
them,  or  may  affix  to  them  almost  any  meaning  he  pleases. 

'  If  it  is  asked,'  says  a  late  writer,  '  whence  arises  the 
harmony,  or  beauty  of  language  ?  what  are  the  rules  for 
obtaining  it  ?  the  answer  is  bbvious.  Whatever  renders  a 
period  sweet  and  pleasant,  makes  it  also  graceful.  A  good 
ear  is  the  gift  pf  nature  ;  it  may  be  much  improved,  but 
not  acquired  by  art.  Whoever  is  possessed  of  it,  will 
scarcely  need  dry  critical  precepts  to  enable  him  to  judge 
of  a  true  rhythmus,  and  melody  of  composition.  Just 
numbers,  accurate  proportions,  a  musical  symphony,  mag- 
nificent figures,  and  that  decorum  which  is  the  result  of 
all  these,  are  unison  to  the  human  mind.' 

The  following  is  a  poetical  example  of  the  same  nature, 
in  which  there  is  scarcely  a  glimpse  of  meaning,  though 
it  v.^as  composed  by  an  eminent  poet. 

From  harmony,  from  heavenly  harmony, 


'lliis  universal  frame  began 


From  liarmony  to  harmony 
Thro'  all  the  compass  of  the' notes  it  ran, 
Ti)e  diapason  closing  full  in  man. 


I 


Propriety.)  perspicuity,  &c.  255 

In  genera],  it  may  be  said,  that  in  writings  of  this  stamp, 
we  mast  accept  of  sound  instead  of  sense  ;  being  assured, 
that  if  we  meet  with  little  that  can  inform  the  judgment, 
we  shall  at  least  find  nothing  that  will  oftend  the  ear.  And 
perhaps  this  is  one  reason  that  we  pass  over  such  smooth 
language,  without  suspecting  that  it  contains  little  or  no 
meaning.  In  order  to  write  or  speak  clearly  and  intelli- 
gibly, two  things  are  especially  requisite  :  one,  that  we 
have  clear  and  distinct  ideas  of  our  subject ;  and  the  other, 
that  our  words  be  approved  signs  of  those  ideas.  Thet 
persons  who  think  confusedly,  should  express  themselves 
obscurely,  is  not  to  be  wondered  at ;  for  embarrassed,  ob- 
scure, and  feeble  sentences,  are  generally,  if  not  always, 
the  result  of  embarrassed,  obscure,  and  feeble  thought ; 
but  that  persons  of  judgment,  who  are  accustomed  to 
scrutinize  their  ideas,  and  the  signification  of  their  words, 
should  sometimes  write  without  any  meaning,  is,  at  first 
sight,  matter  of  admiration.  This  however,  when  farther 
considered,  appears  to  be  an  effect  derived  from  the  same 
cause,  indistinctness  of  conception,  and  inattention  to  the 
exact  import  of  words.  The  occasions  on  which  we  are 
most  apt  to  speak  and  write  in  this  unintelligible  manner, 
are  the  three  following. 

Thejirst  is,  where  there  is  an  exuberance  of  metaphor. 
Writers  who  are  fond  of  the  metaphoric  style,  are  general- 
ly disposed  to  continue  it  too  long,  and  to  pursue  it  too  far. 
They  are  often  misled  by  a  desire  of  flourishing  on  the 
several  properties  of  a  metaphor  which  they  have  ushered 
into  the  discourse,  without  taking  the  trouble  to  examine 
whether  there  are  any  qualities  in  the  subject,  to  which 
these  properties  can,  with  justice  and  perspicuity,  be  ap- 
plied. The  following  instance  of  thii  sort  of  writing  is 
from  an  author  of  considerable  eminence.  *  Men  must 
acquire  a  very  peculiar  and  strong  habit  of  turning  their 
view  inward,  in  order  to  explore  the  interior  regions  and 
recesses  of  the  mind,  the  hollow  caverns  of  deep  thought, 
the  private  seats  of  fancy,  and  the  wastes  and  wilderness, 
as  well  as  the  more  fruitful  and  cultivated  tracts  of  this 
obscure  climate.*  A  most  wonderful  way  of  telling  us, 
that  it  is  difficult  to  trace  the  operations  of  the  mind.  The 
avithor  having  determined  to  represent  the  human  mind 


256  APrENDix.  (Propriety. 

under  t'he  metaphor  of  a  country,  revolved  in  his  thoughts 
the  various  objects  which  might  be  found  in  a  country, 
without  considering  whether  there  are  any  things  in  the 
mind  properly  analogous  to  these.  Hence  the  strange  pa- 
rade he  makes  with  regions  and  recesses,  hollow  caverns 
and  firivate  seats,  wastes  and  wilder7iesses,  fruitful  and 
cultivated  tracts  ;  words  which,  though  they  have  a  pre- 
cise meaning,  as  applied  to  country,  have  no  definite  sig- 
nification, as  applied  to  mind. 

The  second  occasion  of  our  being  apt  to  write  unintelli- 
gibly, is  that  wherein  the  terms  most  frequently  occur- 
ring, denote  things  which  are  of  a  complicated  nature,  and 
to  which  the  mind  is  not  sufficiently  familiarised.  Of 
these  the  instances  are  numberless  in  every  tongue  ;  such 
as,  Government,  church,  state,  constitution,  power,  legis- 
lator, jurisdiction,  &c. 

The  third  and  principal  occasion  of  unintelligible  writ- 
ing, is,  when  the  terms  employed  are  very  abstract,  and 
consequently  of  very  extensive  signification.  Thus  the 
word  lion  is  more  distinctly  apprehended  by  the  mind 
than  the  word  beast,  beast  than  anirnal,  and  animal  than 
being. 

The  7th  and  last  rule  for  preserving  propriety  in  our 
words  and  phrases,  is,  to  avoid  all  those  which  are  not 
adapted  to  the  ideas  we  mean  to  communicate  ;  or  which  arc 
less  signifcant  than  others,  of  those  ideas.  '  He  feels  any 
sorrow  that  can  arrive  at  man  ;'  better  ^  hafifien  to  man.' 

*  The  conscience  of  approving  one's  self  a  benefactor,  is 
tlie  best  recompense  for  being  so  ;'  it  should  have  been 
'  consciousness.*     He  firmly  believed  the  divine  /irece/it, 

*  There  is  not  a  sparrow  falls  to  the  ground,'  &.c.  It 
should  have  been  *  doctrine.* 

*  It  is  but  opening  the  eye,  and  the  scene  enters.'  A 
scene  cannot  be  said  to  enter  :  an  actor  enters  ;  but  a 
scene  a/i/iears  or  firesents  itself. 

*  We  immediately  assent  to  the  beauty  of  an  object, 
without  inquiring  into  the  causes  of  it  :'  it  is  proper  to 
say,  that  we  assent  to  the  truth  of  a  proposition  ;  but  it 
cannot  so  well  be  said,  that  we  assent  to  the  beauty  of  an 
object.  Acknowledge  would  have  expressed  the  sense 
with  propriety. 


Precis 


recisiori.)  p-erspicuity,  8cc.  257 

^  The  sense  of  feeling,  can,  indeed,  give  us  a  notion  of 
extension,  shape,  and  ail  other  ideas  that  enter  at  the  eye^ 
except  colours.*  Extension  and  shafie  can,  with  no  pro- 
priety, be  called  ideas  ;  they  are  properties  of  matter. — 
Neither  is  it  accurate,  to  speak  of  any  sense  giving  ua  a 
notion  of  ideas  :  our  senses  give  us  the  ideas  themselves. 
The  meaning  of  the  sentence  would  have  been  proper, 
and  much  clearer,  if  the  author  had  expressed  himself 
thus  :  '  The  sense  of  feeling,  can,  indeed,  give  us  the 
idea  of  extension,  figure,  and  all  the  other  properties  of 
matter,  which  are  perceived  by  the  eye,  except  colours.* 

*  The  covetous  man  never  has  a  sufficiency  ;  although 
he  has  what  is  enough  for  nature,*  is  much  inferior  to, 
*  The  covetous  man  never  has  enough  ;  although  he  has 
what  is  sufficient  for  nature.* 

'  A  trareller  observes  the  most  striking  objects  he 
sees  ;  a  general  remarks  all  the  motions  of  his  enemy  ' 
better  thus  ;  '  A  traveller  remarks^*  &c.  ;  'A  general 
observes.^*  Sec. 

'  This  measure  enlarged  his  school,  and  obliged  him  to 
increase  the  buildings  ;*  it  should  be,  *  increased  his 
school;*  and  '  ew/ar^-ec^ the  buildings.* 

<  He  applied  a  medicine  before  the  poison  had  time  to 
work  ;'  better  thus  :  '  he  applied  an  antidote^*  8cc. 

*  The  poison  of  a  suspicious  temper  frequently  throws 
out  its  bad  qualities,  on  all  who  are  within  its  reach  ;*  bet- 
ter, '  throws  out  its  malignant  qualities.* 

*  I  will  go  except  I  should  be  ill  ;*  *  I  saw  them  all 
unless  two  or  three  :*  corrected  thus  :  *  unless  I  should 
be  ill  ;*  '  excefit  two  or  three.* 

A  selection  of  words  and  phrases,  which  are  peculiarly 
expressive  of  the  ideas  we  design  to  communicate  ;  or 
which  are  as  particular  and  determinate  in  their  significa- 
tion, as  is  consistent  with  the  nature  and  the  scope  of  th© 
discourse  ;  possesses  great  beauty,  and  cannot  fail  to  pro- 
duce a  good  effect. 

CHAPTER  HI. 

OF   PRECISION. 

Precision  is  the  third  requisite  of  perspicuity  with  re- 
spect to  words  and  phrases.     It  signifies  retrenching  su- 
X2 


258  APPENDIX.  (Precision. 

perfluities,  aniJ  pruning  the  expression,  so  as  to  exhibit 
neither  more  nor  less  than  an  exact  copy  of  the  person's 
idea  who  uses  it. 

The  words  used  to  express  ideas  may  be  faulty  in  three 
respects.  First.  They  may  not  express  the  idea  which 
the  author  intends,  but  some  other  which  only  resembles 
it  ;  secondly.  They  may  express  that  idea,  but  not  fully 
and  completely  ;  thirdly.  They  may  express  it,  together 
with  something  more  than  is  intended.  Precision  stands 
opposed  to  these  three  faults,  but  chiefly  to  the  last. — 
Propriety  implies  a  freedom  from  the  two  former  faults. 
The  words  which  are  used  may  be  proper  ;  that  is,  they 
may  express  the  idea  intended,  and  they  may  express  it 
fully  ;  but  to  be  precise^  signifies  that  they  express  that 
idea  and  no  more. 

The  use  and  importance  of  precision  may  be  deduced 
from  the  nature  of  the  human  mind.  It  never  can  view, 
clearly  and  distinctly,  more  than  one  object  at  a  time.  If 
it  must  look  at  two  or  three  together,  especially  objects 
that  have  resemblance  or  connexion,  it  finds  itself  confus- 
ed and  embarrassed.  It  cannot  clearly  perceive  in  what 
they  agree,  and  in  what  they  differ.  Thus,  were  any  ob- 
ject, suppose  some  animal,  to  be  presented  to  my  view, 
of  whose  structure  I  wished  to  form  a  distinct  notion,  I 
should  desire  all  its  trappings  to  be  taken  off,  I  should 
require  it  to  be  brought  before  me  by  itself,  and  to  stand 
alone,  that  there  might  be  nothing  to  divide  my  atten- 
tion. The  same  is  the  case  with  words.  If,  when  any 
one  would  inform  me  of  his  meaning,  he  also  tells  me 
more  than  what  conveys  it ;  if  he  joins  foreign  circum- 
stances to  the  principal  objects  ;  if,  by  unnecessarily  vary- 
ing the  expression,  he  shifts  the  point  of  view,  and  makes 
me  see  sometimes  the  object  itself,  and  sometimes  an- 
other thing  that  is  connected  with  it,  he  thereby  obliges 
me  to  look  on  several  objects  at  once,  and  I  lose  sight  of 
tlie  principal.  Pie  loads  the  animal  he  is  showing  me, 
with  so  many  trappings  and  collars,  that  I  cannot  distinct- 
ly view  it ;  or  he  Ijrings  so  many  of  the  same  species  be- 
fore me,  somewhat  resembling,  and  yet  somewhat  differ- 
ing, that  I  see  none  of  them  clearly.  When  an  author 
tells  me  of  his  hero's  courage  in  the  day  of  battle,  the  ex.- 


Precision.)  PERSPictriTY,  &c.  259 

pression  is  precise,  and  I  understand  it  fully  :  but  if,  from 
the  desire  of  multiplying  words,  he  should  praise  his 
courage  and  fortitude  ;  at  the  moment  he  joins  these 
words  together,  my  idea  begins  to  waver.  He  means  to 
express  one  quality  more  strongly,  but  he  is  in  truth  ex- 
pressing two  :  courage  resists  danger  ;  fortitude  supports 
pain.  The  occasion  of  exerting  each  of  these  qualities  is 
different ;  and  being  led  to  think  of  both  together,  when 
only  one  of  them  should  be  considered,  my  view  is  reader- 
ed  unsteady,  and  my  conception  of  the  object  indistinct. 

All  subjects  do  not  equally  require  precision.  It  is  suf- 
ficient, on  many  occasions,  that  we  have  a  general  view  of 
the  meaning.  The  subject,  perhaps,  is  of  the  known  and 
familiar  kind,  and  we  are  in  no  hazard  of  mistaking  the 
sense  ef  the  author,  though  eyery  word  which  he  uses  is 
not  precise  and  exact. 

Many  authors  offend  against  this  rule  of  firecision.  A 
considerable  one,  in  describing  a  bad  action,  expresses 
himself  thus  :  '  It  is  to  remove  a  good  and  orderly  affec- 
tion, and  to  introduce  an  ill  or  disorderly  one  ;  to  commit 
an  action  that  is  ill,  i'mmoi'al,  and  unjust ;  to  do  ill,  or  to 
act  in  prejudice  of  integrity,  good  nature,  and  worth.* 

A  crowd  of  unmeaning  or  useless  words  is  brought  to- 
gether by  some  authors,  who,  afraid  of  expressing  them- 
selves in  a  common  and  ordinary  manner,  and  allured  by 
an  appearance  of  splendour,  surround  every  thing  which 
they  mean  to  say  with  a  certain  copious  loquacity. 

The  great  source  of  a  loose  style  in  opposition  to  pre- 
cision, is  the  injudicious  use  of  the  words  termed  synony- 
mous. They  are  called  synonymous,  because  they  agree 
in  expressing  one  principal  idea  ;  but,  for  the  most  part, 
if  not  always,  they  express  it  with  some  diversity  in  the 
circumstances. 

The  following  instances  show  a  difference  in  the  mean- 
ing of  words  reputed  synonymous,  and  point  out  the  use 
of  attending,  with  care  and  strictness,  to  the  exact  import 
of  words. 

Custom^  habit. — Custom,  respects  the  action  ;  habit,  the 
actor.  By  custom,  we  mean  the  frequent  repetition  of 
the  same  act  :  by  habit,  the  effect  which  that  repetition 
produces  on  the  mind  or  body.  By  the  custom  of  walk- 
ing often  in  the  streets,  one  acquires  a  habit  of  idleness. 


260  APPENDIX.  (Precision, 

Pridey  vanity. — Pride  makes  us  esteem  ourselves  j 
vanity,  makes  us  desire  the  esteem  of  others.  It  is  just 
to  say,  that  a  man  is  too  proud  to  be  vain. 

Haughtiness^  disdain. — Haughtiness   is  founded  on  the' 
high  opinion  we  entertain  of  ourselves  ;  disdain,  on  the 
low  opinion  we  have  of  others. 

Onlyy  alone. — Only,  imports  that  there  is  no  other  of 
the  same  kind  ;  alone,  imports  being  accompanied  by  no 
other.  An  only  child,  is  one  that  has  neither  brother  nor 
sister  :  a  child  alone,  is  one  who  is  left  by  itself.  There 
is  a  difference,  therefore,  in  precise  language,  between 
these  two  phrases  :  *  Virtue  only  makes  us  happy  ;'  and 
*  Virtue  alone  makes  us  happy.' 

Wisdo?n,  /irudence. -^Wisdom  leads  us  to  speak  and  act 
what  is  most  proper.  Prudence,  prevents  our  speaking 
or  acting  improperly. 

Entire^  comfilete. — A  thing  is  entire,  by  wanting  none 
of  its  parts  :  complete,  by  wanting  none  of  the  appendages 
that  belong  to  it.  A  man  may  have  an  entire  house  to 
himself,  and  yet  not  have  one  complete  apartment. 

Surprised.^  astonished^  amazed^  confounded. — I  am  sur- 
prised with  what  is  new  or  unexpected  ;  I  am  astonished 
at  what  is  vast  or  great ;  I  am  amazed  at  what  is  incom- 
prehensible J  I  am  confounded  by  what  is  shocking  or 
terrible. 

Tranquillity.,  fieace.^  calm. — Tranquillity  respects  a  situa- 
tion free  from  trouble,  considered  in  itself;  peace,  the 
same  situation  with  respect  to  any  causes  that  might  in- 
terrupt it ;  calm,  with  regard  to  a  disturbed  situation  go- 
ing before  or  following  it.  A  good  man  enjoys  tranquilli- 
ty, in  himself ;  peace,  with  others;  and  calm,  after  the 
storm. 

These  are  some  of  the  numerous  instances  of  words,  in 
our  language,  whose  significations  approach,  but  are  not 
precisely  the  same.  The  more  the  distinction  in  the 
meaning  of  such  words  is  attended  to,  the  more  clearly 
and  forcibly  shall  we  speak  or  write.  It  may  not,  on  ali 
occasions,  be  necessary  to  pay  a  great  deal  of  attention  to 
very  nice  distinctions  ;  yet  the  foregoing  instances  show 
the  utility  of  some  general  care  to  imderstand  the  distinct 
import  of  our  words. 


Precision.)  perspicuity,  Sec.  261 

While  we  are  attending  to  precision,  we  must  be  on 
our  guard,  lest,  from  the  desire  of  pruning  too  closely,  we 
retrench  all  copiousness.  Scarcely  in  any  language  are 
there  two  words  that  convey  precisely  the  same  id^a  ;  a 
person  thoroughly  conversant  in  the  propriety  of  the  lan- 
guage, will  always  be  able  to  observe  something  that  dis- 
tinguishes them.  As  they  are  like  different  shades  of  the 
same  colour,  an  accurate  writer  can  employ  them  to  great 
advantage,  by  using  them  so  as  to  heighten  and  complete 
the  object  which  he  presents  to  us.  He  supplies  by  one 
what  was  wanting  in  the  other,  to  the  strength,  or  to  the 
ftnishing,  of  the  image  which  he  means  to  exhibit.  But, 
for  this  purpose,  he  must  be  attentive  to  the  choice  of  his 
words,  and  not  employ  them  carelessly,  merely  for  the 
sake  of  filling  up  a  period,  or  of  rounding  or  diversifying 
his  language,  as  if  their  signification  were  exactly  the 
same,  while  in  truth  it  is  not. — To  unite  copiousness  and 
precision,  to  be  full  and  easy,  and  at  the  sam.e  time  correct 
and  exact  in  the  choice  of  every  word,  is  no  doubt  one  of 
the  highest  and  most  difiicult  attainments  m  writing. 


PART  II. 

OF  PERSPICUITY  AND  ACCURACY    OF  EXPRESSION,    WITH 
RESPECT  TO  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  SENTENCES. 

Sentences,  in  general,  should  neither  be  very  long, 
nor  very  short :  long  ones  require  close  attention  to  make 
us  clearly  perceive  the  connexion  of  the  several  parts  j 
and  short  ones  are  apt  to  break  the  sense,  and  weaken  the 
connexion  of  thought.  Yet  occasionally  they  may  both  be 
used  with  force  and  propriety  ;  as  may  be  seen  in  the  fol- 
lowing sentences. 

*  If  you  look  about  you,  and  consider  the  lives  of  others 
as  well  as  your  own  ;  if  you  think  how  few  are  born  with 
honour,  and  how  many  die  without  name  or  children  ;  how 
little  beauty  We  see,  and  how  few  friends  we  hear  of ;  how 
much  poverty,  and  how  many  diseases  there  are  in  the 
world  ;  you  will  fall  down  upon  your  knees,  and  instead  of 
repining  at  one  affliction,  will  admire  so  many  blessings 
which  you  have  received  from  the  Divine  hand.*  This  is 
a  sentence  composed  of  several  members  linked  together, 


262  APPENDIX.  (Clearness. 

and  hanging  upon  one  another,  so  that  the  sense  of  the 
whole  is  not  brought  out  till  the  close.  The  following  is 
an  example  of  one  in  which  Vhe  sense  is  formed  into 
short,  independent  propositions,  each  complete  within  it- 
self. *  I  confess,  it  was  want  of  consideration  that  made 
me  an  author.  I  wrote  because  it  amused  me.  I  cor- 
rected, because  it  was  as  pleasant  to  me  to  correct  as  to 
write.  I  published,  because  I  was  told  I  might  please 
such  as  it  was  a  credit  to  please.' 

A  train  of  sentences,  constructed  in  the  same  manner, 
and  with  the  same  number  of  members,  should  never  be 
allowed  to  succeed  one  another.  A  long  succession  of 
cither  long  or  short  sentences  should  also  be  avoided  :  for 
the  ear  tires  of  either  of  them  when  too  long  continued. 
Whereas,  by  a  proper  mixture  of  long  and  short  periods, 
and  of  periods  variously  constructed,  not  only  the  ear  is 
gratified  ;  but  animation  and  force  are  given  to  our  style. 

We  now  proceed  to  consider  the  things  most  essential 
to  an  accurate  and  a  perfect  sentence.  They  appear  to 
be  the    four  following:     1.  clearness.     2.  unity.     3. 

STRENGTH.  4.  A  JUDICIOUS  USE  OF  THE  FIGURES  X)F 
SPEECH. 

CHAPTER  I. 

OF  THE  CLEARNESS  OF  A  SENTENCE. 

Purity,  propriety,  and  precision,  in  words  and  phrases 
separately  considered,  have  already  been  explained,  and 
shown  to  be  necessary  to  perspicuous  and  accurate  writing. 
The  just  relation  of  sentences,  and  the  parts  of  sentences, 
to  one  another,  and  the  due  arrangement  of  the  whole,  are 
the  subjects  which  remain  to  be  discussed. 

Thejiy-st  requisite  of  a  perfect  sentence  is  Clearness. 

Whatever  leaves  the  mind  in  any  sort  of  suspense  as  to 
the  meaning,  ought  to  be  avoided.  Obscurity  arises  from 
two  causes ;  either  from  a  wrong  choice  of  words,  or  a 
wrong  arrangement  of  them.  The  choice  of  words  and 
phrases,  as  far  as  regards  perspicuity,  has  been  already 
considered.  The  disposition  of  them  comes  now  under 
consideration. 

The  first  thing  to  be  studied  here,  is  grammatical  pro- 
priety.   But  as  tlie  grammar  of  our  language  is  compara-* 


Clearness.)  perspicttitt,  Sec.  263 

lively  not  extensive,  there  may  be  an  obscure  order  of 
words,  where  there  is  no  transgression  of  any  grammati- 
cal rule.  The  relations  of  words,  or  members  of  a  period, 
are,  with  us,  ascertained  only  by  the  position  in  which 
they  stand. 

Hence  a  capital  rule  in  the  arrangement  of  sentences  is, 
that  the  words  or  members,  most  clearly  related,  should 
be  placed  in  the  sentence  as  near  to  each  other  as  possi- 
ble, so  as  to  make  their  mutual  relation  clearly  appear.  It 
will  be  proper  to  produce  some  instances,  in  order  to  show 
the  importance  of  this  rule. 

1.  In  the  position  of  adverbs.  ^  The  Romans  under- 
stood liberty,  at  least,  as  well  as  we.'  These  words  are 
capable  of  two  different  senses,  according  as  the  emphasis, 
in  reading  them,  is  laid  upon  liberty,  or  upon  at  least. 
The  words  should  have  been  thus  arranged  :  *  The  Ro- 
mans understood  liberty  as  well,  at  least,  as  we.* 

*  Theism  can  only  be  opposed  to  polytheism,  or  atheism.* 
Is  it  meant  that  theism  is  capable  of  nothing  else  besides 
being  opposed  to  polytheism  or  atheism  ?  This  is  what 
the  words  literally  import,  through  the  wrong  placing  of 
the  adverb  only.  It  shouki  have  been,  *  Theism  can  be 
opposed  only  to  polytheism  or  atheism.* 

'  By  the  pleasures  of  the  imagination,  I  mean  only  such 
pleasures  as  arise  originally  from  sight.  When  it  is  said, 
'  /  mean  only  such  pleasures,^  it  may  be  remarked,  that  the 
adverb  only  is  not  properly  placed.  It  is  not  intended  here 
to  qualify  the  word  mean,  but  such  pleasures  ;  and  there- 
fore should  have  been  placed  in  as  close  connexion  as 
possible  with  the  word  which  it  limits  or  qualifies.  The 
style  becomes  more  clear  and  neat,  when  the  words  are 
arranged  thus  ;  ^  By  the  pleasures  of  the  imagination,  I 
mean  such  pleasures  only  as  arise  from  sight.* 

In  the  following  sentence,  the  word  more  is  not  in  its 
proper  place.  '  There  is  not  perhaps,  any  real  beauty  or 
deformity  more  in  one  piece  of  matter  than  another.*  The 
phrase  ought  to  have  stood  thus  :  '  Beauty  or  deformity  in 
one  piece  of  matter  more  than  in  another.* 

2.  /n  the  position  of  circu7nstances,  and  of  particular 
members. 


^64  APPENDIX.  (Clearness. 

An  author,  in  his  dissertation  on  parties,  thus  expresses 
himself :  *  Are  these  designs  which  any  man,  who  is  born 
a  Briton,  in  any  circumstances,  in  any  situation,  oui^ht  to 
be  asliamed  or  afraid  to  avow  ?'  Here  we  are  left  at  a  loss, 
whether  these  words,  *  in  any  circumstances,  in  any  situa- 
tion,' are  connected  with  *  a  man  born  in  Britain,  in  any 
circumstances  or  situation,*  or  with  that  man's  *  avowing 
his  designs  in  any  circumstances  or  situation  into  which 
he  may  be  brought.'  As  it  is  probable  that  the  latter  was 
intended,  the  arrangement  ought  to  have  been  conducted 
thus  :  *  Are  these  designs  which  any  man,  who  is  born  a 
Briton,  ought  to  be  ashamed  or  afraid,  in  any  situation,  in 
any  circumstances,  to  avow  ?* 

The  following  is  another  instance  of  a  wrong  arrange- 
ment of  circumstances.  <  A  great  stone  that  I  happened 
to  find,  after  a  long  search,  by  the  sea  shore,  served  me 
for  an  anchor.'  One  would  think  that  the  search  was 
confined  to  the  sea  shore  ;  but  as  the  meaning  is,  that  the 
great  stone  was  found  by  the  sea  shore,  the  period  ought 
to  have  run  thus  ;  *  A  great  stone,  that,  after  a  long 
search,  I  happened  to  find  by  the  sea  shore,  served  ine 
for  an  anchor.' 

It  is  a  rule,  too,  never  to  crowd  many  circumstances 
together,  but  rather  to  intersperse  them  in  different  parts 
of  the  sentence,  joined  with  the  principal  words  on  which 
they  depend.  For  instance  :  '  What  I  had  the  opportu- 
nity of  mentioning  to  my  friend,  sometime  ago,  in  con- 
versation, was  not  a  new  thought.*  These  two  circum- 
stances, '  sometime  ago^'  and  *  m  conversation,^  which  are 
here  put  together,  would  have  had  a  better  effect  disjoin- 
ed, thus  :  '  What  I  had  the  opportunity,  sometime  ago, 
of  mentioning  to  my  friend,  in  conversation,  was  not  a 
new  thought.' 

Here  follows  an  example  of  the  wrong  arrangement  of 
a  member  of  a  sentence.  *  The  minister  of  state  who 
grows  less  by  his  elevation,  like  a  little  statue  placed  on  a 
mighty  pedestal,  will  always  have  his  jealousy  strong  about 
him.'  Here,  so  far  as  can  be  gathered  from  the  arrange- 
ment, it  is  doubtful  whether  the  object  introduced,  by  way 
of  simile,  relates  to  what  goes  before,  or  to  what  follows. 
The  ambiguity  is  removed  by  the  foiiowing  order.    *  The 


Clearness.)        perspicuity,  &c.'  265 

minister  of  state,  who,  like  a  little  statue  placed  on  a  mighty 
pedestal,  grows  less  by  his  elevation,  will  always,*  £cc. 

Words  expressing  things  connected  in  the  thought, 
ought  to  be  placed  as  near  together  as  possible,  even  when 
their  separation  would  convey  no  ambiguity.  This  will 
be  seen  in  the  following  passages  from  Addison.  «  For 
the  English  are  naturally  fanciful,  and  very  often  disposed, 
by  that  gloominess  and  melancholy  of  temper,  which  are 
so  frequent  in  our  nation,  to  many  wild  notions  and  ex- 
travagancies, to  which  others  are  not  so  liable.*  Here  the 
verb  or  assertion  is,  by  a  pretty  long  circumstance,  sepa- 
rated from  the  subject  to  which  it  refers.  This  might 
have  been  easily  prevented,  by  placing  the  circumstance 
before  the  verb,  thus  :  ^  For  the  English  are  naturally  fan- 
ciful, and  by  that  gloominess  and  melancholy  of  temper 
which  are  so  frequent  in  our  nation,  are  often  disposed  to 
many  wild  notions,*  &c. 

'  For  as  no  mortal  author,  in  the  ordinary  fate  and  vicis- 
situde of  things,  knows  to  what  use  his  works  may,  some 
time  or  other,  be  applied,*  &c.  Better  thus  :  '  For  as,  in 
the  ordinary  fate  and  vicissitude  of  things,  no  mortal  au- 
thor knows  to  what  use,  some  time  or  other,  his  works 
may  be  applied,'  &c. 

From  these  examples,  the  following  observations  will 
occur:  that  a  circumstance  ought  never  to  be  placed  be- 
tween two  capital  members  of  a  period  ;  but  either  be- 
tween the  parts  of  the  member  to  which  it  belongs,  or  in 
such  a  manner  as  will  confine  it  to  its  proper  member. 
When  the  sense  admits  it,  the  sooner  a  circumstance  is 
introduced,  generally  speaking,  the  better,  that  the  more 
important  and  significant"  words  may  possess  the  last  place, 
quite  disencumbered.  The  following  sentence  is,  in  this 
respect,  faulty.  '  The  emperor  was  so  intent  on  the 
establishment  of  his  absolute  power  in  Hungary,  that  he 
exposed  the  empire  doubly  to  desolation  and  ruin  for  the 
sake  of  it.'  Better  thus  :  '  That,  for  the  sake  of  it,  he 
exposed  the  empire  donbly  to  desolation  and  ruin.* 

This  appears  to  be  a  proper  place  to  observe,  that  v/hcn 
different  things  have  an  obvious  relation  to  each  other,  in 
respect  to  the  order  of  nature  or  time,  that  f^rder  should 
be  regarded,  in  assigning  them  their  places  in  tiic  sen- 

Y 


266  APPENDIX.  (Clearness. 

tence  ;  unless  the  scope  of  the  passages  require  it  to  be 
varied.  The  conclusion  of  the  following  lines  is  inaccurate 
in  this  respect :  *  But  siill  there  will  be  such  a  luixture  of 
delight,  as  is  proportioned  to  the  degree  in  which  any  one 
of  these  qualifications  is  most  conspicuous  and  prevailing.' 
The  order  in  which  the  two  last  words  are  placed,  should 
have  been  reversed,  and  made  to  ^Vdud,  firevaili7ig  ixud  con- 
fJiicuGus.     They  are  cons/iicuous,  because  they  prevaiL 

The  following  sentence  is  a  beautiful  example  of  strict 
conformity  to  this  rule.  '  Our  sight  fills  the  mind  with 
the  largest  variety  of  ideas,  converses  with  its  objects  at  the 
greatest  distance,  and  continues  the  longest  in  action, 
without  being  tired  or  satiated  with  its  proper  enjoyments.' 
This  passage  follows  the  order  of  nature.  First,  we  have 
the  variety  of  objects  mentioned,  which  sight  furnishes  to 
the  mind  ;  next,  we  have  the  action  of  sight  on  those  ob- 
jects ;  and  lastly,  we  have  the  time  and  continuance  of  its 
action.     No  order  could  be  more  natural  or  exact. 

The  order  which  we  now  recommend,  is,  in  single 
words  especially,  frequently  violated,  for  the  sake  of  bet- 
ter sound  ;  but,  perhaps  in  no  instances,  without  a  devia- 
tion from  the  line  of  strict  propriety. 

3.  In  the  disjio&ition  of  the  relative  jironouna^  who,  which, 
tvhat,  whose,  and  of  all  those  particle^  rjhich  express  the 
connexion  of  the  parts  of  speech  ivith  one  another. 

A  small  error  in  the  position  of  these  words  may  cloud 
the  meaning  of  the  whole  sentence  ;  and  even  where  the 
meaning  is  intelligible,  we  always  find  something  awkward 
and  disjointed  in  the  structure  of  the  sentence,  when  these 
relatives  are  out  of  their  proper  place.  *  This  kind  of 
wit,'  says  an  author,  '  was  very  mucji  in  vogue  among  our 
countrymen,  about  an  age  or  two  ago;  who  did  not  prac- 
tise it  for  any  oblique  reason,  but  purely  for  the  sake  of 
being  witty.'  We  are  at  no  loss  about  the  meaning  here  ; 
but  the  construction  would  evidently  be  mended  by  dis- 
posing the  circumstance,  '  about  an  age  or  two  ago,'  in 
such  a  manner  as  not  to  separate  the  relative  ivho  from  its 
antecedent  our  countrymen  ;  in  this  way  :  '  About  an  age 
or  tvv'o  ago,  this  kind  of  wit  was  very  much  in  vogue  among 
our  countrymen,  who  did  not  practise  il,'  Sec. 


Unity.)  PERSPICUITY,  Sec.  267 

The  following  passage  is  still  more  censurable.  *  It  is 
folly  to  pretend  to  arm  ourselves  against  the  accidents  of 
life,  by  heaping  up  treasures,  which  nothing  can  protect  us 
against,  but  the  good  providence  of  our  Creator.'  Which 
always  refers  grammatically  to  the  substantive  immediate- 
ly preceding ;  and  that,  in  the  instance  just  mentioned,  is 

*  treasures.'  The  sentence  ought  to  have  stood  thus  :  '  I( 
is  folly  to  pretend,  by  heaping  up  treasures,  to  arm  our- 
selves against  the  accidents  of  life,  which  nothing  can  pro- 
tect us  against,'  &c. 

With  regard  to  relatives,  it  may  be  farther  observed, 
that  obscurity  often  arises  from  the  too  frequent  repetition 
of  them,  particularly  of  the  pronouns  ivho  and  thcij^  and 
them  and  theirs^  wlien  we  have  occasion  to  refer  to  differ- 
ent persons  ;  as  in  the  following  sentence  of  Tillotsoir. 

*  Men  look  with  an  evil  eye  upon  the  good  that  is  in  others, 
and  think  that  their  reputation  obscures  them^  and  their 
commendable  qualities  stand  in  ^//e//*  light ;  and  therefore 
they  do  what  they  can  to  cast  a  cloud  over  them^  that  th() 
bright  shining  of  their  virtues  may  not  obscure  them.^ 
This  is  altogether  careless  writing.  When  wc  find  these 
personal  pronouns  crow^ling  toe  fast  upon  us,  wc  have 
often  no  method  left,  but  to  throw  the  whole  sentence  into 
some  other  form,  which  may  avoid  those  frequent  refer- 
ences to  persons  who  have  befoi^e  been  mentioned. 

To  have  the  relation  of  every  word  and  member  of  a 
sentence  marked  in  the  most  proper  and  distinct  manner, 
not  only  gives  clearness  to  it,  but  makes  the  mind  pass 
smoothly  and  agreeably  along  all  the  parts  of  it. 

CHAPTER  II. 

OF  THE  UNITY  OF  A  SENTENCE. 

The  second  requisite  of  a  perfect  sentence,  is  its  Unity. 

In  every  composition,  there  is  always  some  connecting 
principle  among  the  parts.  Some  one  object  must  reign 
and  be  predominant.  But  most  of  all,  hi  a  single  sentence, 
is  required  the  strictest  unity.  For  the  very  nature  of  a 
sentence  implies  that  one  proposition  is  expressed.  It 
may  consist  of  parts,  indeed,  but  these  parts  must  be  so 
qlosely  boimd  together,  as  to  make  the  impression  upon  the 


268  APPENDIX.  (Unity. 

mind  of  one  object,  not  of  many.     To  preserve  this  unity 
of  a  sentence,  the  following  rules  must  be  observed. 

In  the  j^rst  place,  Duri7ig  the  course  of  the  senteiice,  the 
scene  should  be  changed  as  little  as  possible.  We  should 
not  be  hurried  by  sudden  transitions  from  person  to  per- 
son, nor  from  subject  to  subject.  There  is  commonly  in 
every  sentence,  some  person  or  thing  which  is  the  govern- 
ing word.  This  should  be  continued  so,  if  possible,  from 
the  beginning  to  the  end  of  it. 

The  following  sentence  varies  from  this  rule  :  '  After 
we  came  to  anchor,  they  put  me  on  shore,  where  I  was 
welcomed  by  all  my  friends,  who  received  me  with  the 
greatest  kindness.*  In  this  sentence,  though  the  objects 
contained  in  it  have  a  sufiicient  connexion  with  each  othcv, 
yet,  by  this  manner  of  representing  them,  by  shifting  so 
often  both  the  place  and  the  person,  ive  and  they^  and  / 
and  ivho^  they  appear  in  so  disunited  a  view,  that  the  sense 
of  connexion  is  much  impaired.  The  sentence  is  restored 
to  its  proper  unity,  by  turning  it  after  the  following  manner. 
'  Having  come  to  an  anchor,  I  v/as  put  on  shore,  where  I 
was  welcomed  by  all  my  frierids,  and  received  with  the 
greatest  kindness.* 

Here  follows  another  instance  of  departure  from  the 
rule.  '  The  sultan  being  dangerously  wounded,  they  car- 
ried him  to  his  tent ;  and,  upon  hearing  of  the  defeat  of 
his  troops,  they  put  him  into  a  litter,  which  transported 
him  to  a  place  of  safety,  at  the  distance  of  about  fifteen 
leagues.'  Better  thus  :  '  The  sultan  being  dangerously 
wounded,  was  carried  to  his  tent  ;  and,  on  hearing  of  the 
defeat  of  his  troops,  was  put  into  a  litter,  and  transported 
to  a  place  of  safety,  about  fifteen  leagues  distant.' 

A  second  rule  under  the  head  of  unity,  is,  J\''ever  to 
crowd  into  one  sentence^  things  which  have  so  little  con- 
nexion^ that  they  could  bear  to  be  divided  into  two  or  three 
sentences. 

The  violation  of  this  rule  tends  so  much  to  perplex  and 
obscure,  that  it  is  safer  to  err  by  too  many  short  sentences, 
than  by  one  that  is  overloaded  and  embarrassed.  Exam- 
ples abound  in  authors.  *  Archbishop  Tillotson,'  says  an 
author,  '  died  in  this  year.  He  was  exceedingly  beloved 
by  king  William  and  queen  Mary,  who  nominated  Dr. 


Unity.)  i^ERSPicuiTY,  he.  269 

Tennison,  bishop  of  Lincoln,  to  succeed  him.*  Wiio 
would  expect  the  latter  part  of  this  sentence  to  follow  in 
consequence  of  the  former  ?  *  He  was  exceedingly  be- 
loved by  both  king  and  queen,'  is  the  proposition  of  the 
sentence.  We  look  for  some  proof  of  this,  or  at  least 
something-  related  to  it  to  follow  ;  when  we  are  on  a  sud- 
den carried  off  to  a  new  proposition. 

The  following*  sentence  is  still  worse.  The  author, 
speaking  of  the  Greeks  under  Alexander,  says  ;  'Their 
march  was  through  an  uncultivated  country,  whose  savage 
inhabitants  fared  hardly,  having  no  other  riches  than  a 
breed  of  lean  sheep,  whose  flesh  was  rank  and  unsavotiry, 
by  reason  of  their  continual  feeding  upon  sea-fish.'  Here 
the  scene  is  changed  upon  us  again  and  again.  The 
march  of  the  Greeks,  the  description  of  the  inhabitants 
through  whose  country  they  travelled,  the  account  of  their 
sheep,  and  the  cause  of  their  sheep  being  ill-tasted  food, 
form  a  jumble  of  objects,  slightly  related  to  each  other, 
which  the  reader  cannot,  without  much  difficulty,  compre- 
hend under  one  view. 

These  examples  have  been  taken  from  sentences  of  no 
great  length,  yet  very  crowded.  Writers  who  deal  in 
long  sentences,  are  very  apt  to  be  faulty  in  this  article. 
Take,  for  an  instance,  the  following  from  Temple.  *  The 
usual  acceptation  takes  profit  and  pleasure  for  two  differ- 
ent things,  and  not  only  calls  the  followers  or  votaries  of 
them  by  the  several  names  of  busy  and  idle  men  ;  but 
distinguishes  the  faculties  of  the  mind,  that  are  conversant 
about  them,  calling  the  operations  of  the  first,  IVisdom  ; 
and  of  the  other,  Wit ;  which  is  a  Saxon  word,  used  ta 
express  what  the  Spaniards  and  Italians  call  Ingenio^  and 
the  French  Esfirit^  both  from  the  Latin,  though  I  think 
wit  more  particularly  signifies  that  of  poetry,  as  may  oc- 
cur in  remarks  on  the  Runic  language.*  When  the  read- 
er arrives  at  the  end  of  this  perplexed  sentence,  he  is  sur- 
prised to  find  himself  at  so  great  distance  from  the  object 
with  which  he  set  out. 

Long,  involved,  and  intricate  sentences,  are  great  ble- 
mishes in  composition.  In  writers  of  considerable  cor- 
rectness, we  find  a  period  sometimes  running  out  so  far, 
and  comprehending  so  many  particulars,  as  to  be  mor» 


270  APPENDIX.  (Unitj. 

properly  a  discourse  than  a  sentence.  An  author,  speak- 
ing of  the  progress  of  our  language  after  the  time  of 
Crom-well,  runs  on  in  this  manner  :  '  To  this  succeeded 
that  licentiousness  which  entered  with  the  restoration, 
and,  from  infecting  our  religion  and  morals,  fell  to  cor- 
rupt our  language  ;  which  last  was  not  like  to  be  much 
improved  by  those  who  at  that  time  made  up  the  court  of 
king  Charles  the  Second  ;  either  such  as  had  followed 
him  in  his  banishment,  or  who  had  been  altogether  con- 
versant in  the  dialect  o^  these  times,  or  young  men  who 
had  been  educated  in  the  same  country  :  so  that  the 
court,  which  used  to  be  the  standard  of  correctness  and 
propriety  of  speech,  was  then,  and  I  think  has  ever  since 
continued,  the  worst  school  in  England  for  that  accom- 
plishment ;  and  so  will  remain,  till  better  care  be  taken 
in  the  education  of  our  nobility,  that  they  may  set  out  into 
the  world  with  some  foundation  of  literature,  in  order  to 
qualify  them  for  patterns  of  politeness.' 

The  author,  in  place  of  a  sentence,  has  here  given  a 
loose  dissertation  upon  several  subjects.  How  many  dif- 
ferent facts,  reasonings,  and  observations,  are  here  pre- 
sented to  the  mind  at  once  !  and  yet  so  linked  together 
by  the  author,  that  they  all  make  parts  of  a  sentence, 
which  admits  of  no  greater  division  in  pointing,  than  a 
colon  between  any  of  its  members. 

It  may  be  of  use  here  to  give  a  specimen  of  a  long  sen- 
tence, broken  down  into  several  periods  ;  by  which  we 
shall  more  clearly  perceive  the  disadvantages  of  long  sen- 
tences, and  how  easily  they  may  be  amended.  Here  fol- 
lows the  sentence  in  its  original  form  :  *  Though  in  yes- 
terday's paper  we  showed  how  every  thing  that  is  great, 
new,  or  beautiful,  is  apt  to  affect  the  imagination  with 
pleasure,  we  must  own,  that  it  is  impossible  for  us  to  as- 
sign the  necessary  cause  of  this  pleasure,  because  we 
know  neither  the  nature  of  an  idea,  nor  the  substance  of  a 
human  soul  :  and  therefore,  for  want  of  such  a  light,  all 
that  we  can  do,  in  speculations  of  this  kind,  is,  to  reflect 
on  tliose  operations  of  the  soul  that  are  most  agreeable  : 
and  to  rang-e,  under  their  proper  heads,  Avhat  is  pleasing 
or  displeasing  to  the  mind,  without  being  able  to  trace 
out  the  several  necessary  and  efficient  causes,  fi'om  v»'hcnce 
the  pleasure  or  displcv^sure  arises,* 


Strength.)  perspicuity,  Sec.  271 

The  following  amendment,  besides  breaking  down  the 
period  into  several  sentences,  exhibits  some  other  useful 
alterations  :  <  In  yesterday's  paper,  we  showed  that  every 
thing  w^hich  is  great,  new,  or  beautiful,  is  apt  to  affect  the 
imagination  with  pleasure.  We  must  own,  that  it  is  im- 
possible for  us  to  assign  the  efficient  cause  of  this  plea- 
sure, because  we  know  not  the  nature  either  of  an  idea,  or 
of  the  human  soul.  All  that  we  can  do,  therefore,  in 
speculations  of  this  kind,  is  to  reflect  on  the  operations  of 
the  soul  which  are  most  agreeable,  and  to  range  undei^ 
proper  heads  what  is  pleasing  or  displeasing  to  the  mind.' 

A  third  rule  for  preserving  the  unity  of  sentences,  is, 
to  keep,  clear  of  all  unnecessary  parentheses. 

On  some  occasions,  when  the  sense  is  not  too  long  sus- 
pended by  them,  and  when  they  are  introduced  in  a  pro- 
per place,  they  may  add  both  to  the  vivacity  and  to  the 
energy  of  the  sentence.  But  for  the  most  part  their  ef- 
fect is  extremely  bad.  They  are  wheels  within  wheels  ; 
sentences  in  the  midst  of  sentences  ;  the  perplexed  me- 
thod of  disposing  of  some  thought,  which  a  writer  wants 
judgment  to  introduce  in  its  proper  place. 

The  parenthesis  in  this  sentence  is  striking  and  proper  ; 

*  And  was  the  ransom  paid  i  It  was  ;  and  paid 

*  (What  can  exalt  the  bounty  more  ?)  for  thee.* 

But  in  the  following  sentence,  we  become  sensible  of  an 
impropriety  in  the  use  of  it.  *  If  your  hearts  secretly 
reproach  you  for  the  wrong  choice  you  have  made,  (as 
there  is  time  for  repentance  and  retreat  ;  and  a  return  to 
wisdom  is  always  honourable)  bethink  yourselves  that  the 
evil  is"  not  irreparable.'  It  would  be  much  better  to  ex- 
press in  a  separate  sentence,  the  thoughts  contained  in 
this  parenthesis  ;  thus  :  '  If  your  hearts  secretly  i-eproach 
you  for  the  wrong  choice  you  have  made,  bethink  your- 
selves that  the  evil  is  not  irreparable.  Still  there  is  time 
for  repentance  and  retreat  ;  and  a  return  to  wisdom  is 
always  honourable.'  ■!■ 

CHAPTER  III. 

OF  THE  STRENGTH  OF  A  SENTENCE. 

The  third  requisite  of  a  perfect  sentence,  is,  Strength. 
By  this  is  meant  such  a  disposition  and  management  of 
the  several  words  iuid  members,  as  shall  bring  out  the 


272  APPENDIX.  (Strengtlu 

sense  to  the  best  advantage,  and  give  every  word,  and 
every  member,  its  due  weight  and  force. 

A  sentence  may  be  clear,  it  may  also  be  compact  in  all 
its  parts,  or  have  the  requisite  unity,  and  yet,  by  some 
circumstance  in  the  structure,  it  may  fail  in  that  strength 
of  impression,  which  a  better  management  would  have 
produced. 

The^rs^  rule  for  promoting  the  strength  of  a  sentence, 
is,  to  firune  it  of  all  redundant  ivords  and  members. 

It  is  a  general  maxim,  that  any  words  which  do  not  add 
some  importance  to  the  meaning  of  a  sentence,  always 
injure  it.  Care  should  therefore  be  exercised  with  re- 
spect to  synonymous  words,  expletives,  circumlocutions, 
tautologies,  and  the  expression  of  unnecessary  circum- 
stances. The  attention  becomes  remiss,  when  words  are 
multiplied  without  a  correspondent  multiplication  of  ideas. 

*  Content  with  deserving  a  triumph,  he  refused  the  honour 
of  it  ;'  is  better  language  than  to  say,  '  Being  content 
with  deserving  it,'  See. 

'  In  the  Attic  commonwealth,*  says  an  author,  '  it  was 
the  privilege  and  birthright  of  every  citizen  and  poet,  to 
rail  aloud  and  in  public*  Better  simply  thus  :  '  In  the 
Attic  commonwealth,  it  was  the  privilege  of  every  citizen 
to  rail  in  public* 

Another  expresses  himself  thus  :  '  They  returned  back 
a.^ain  to  the  same  city  from  whence  they  came  forth  ;* 
instead  of,  '  They  returned  to  tlie  city  whence  they  came.* 
The  five  words,  back^  agahi^  sa?ne,  from^  and  forth^  are 
mere  expletives,  that  have  neither  use  nor  beauty,  and  are 
therefore  to  be  regarded  as  encumbrances. 

The  word  but  is  often  improperly  used  with  that :  as, 

*  There  can  be  no  doubt  buc  that  he  seriously  means  what 
he    says.'      It  is   not   only   useless,    but   cumbersome  : 

*  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  he  seriously  means  what  he 
says.'  By  transposing  the  parts  of  the  sentence,  we  shall 
immediately  perceive  the  propriety  of  omitting  this  word  : 

*  That  he  seriously  means  what  he  says,  there  can  be  no 
doubt.' 

*  I  am  honestly,  seriously,  and  unalterably  of  opinion, 
that  nothing  can  possibly  be  more  incurably  and  emphati- 
cally destructive,  or  more  decisively  fatal,  to  a  kingdom, 


Strength.)  perspicuity,  Sec.  273 

than  the  introduction  of  thoughtless  dissipation,  and  the 
pomp  of  lazy  luxury.'  Would  not  the  full  import  of  this 
noisy  sentence  be  better  expressed  thus  :  *  I  am  of  opin- 
ion, that  nothing  is  more  ruinous  to  a  kingdom,  than  luxu- 
ry and  dissipation  ?' 

Some  v/riters  use  much  circumlocution  in  expressing 
their  ideas.  A  considerable  one,  for  so  very  simple  a 
thing  as  a  mean's  wounding  himself,  says,  '  To  mangle, 
or  wound,  his  outward  form  and  constitution,  his  natural 
limbs  or  body.' 

But,  on  some  occasions,  circumlocution  has  a  peculiar 
force  ;  as  in  the  following  sentence  :  '  Shall  not  the  Judge 
of  all  the  earth  do  right  ?' 

In  the  sentences  which  follow,  the  ill  effects  of  tauto- 
logy appear. 

'  So  it  is,  that  I  must  be  forced  to  get  home,  partly  by 
stealth,  and  partly  hy force* 

*  Never  did  Atticus  succeed  better  in  gaining  the  uni- 
versal love  and  esteem  of  a//  men.' 

The  suljsequent  sentence  contains  several  unnecessary 
circumstances  '  On  receiving  this  information,  he  arose, 
went  out,  saddled  his  horse,  mounted  him,  and  rode  to 
town.'  All  is  implied  in  saying,  '  On  receiving  this  infor- 
mation, he  rode  to  town.* 

This  manner,  however,  in  a  certain  degree,  is  so  strong- 
ly'characteristic  of  the  simple  style  of  remote  ages,  that, 
in  books  of  the  highest  antiquity,  particularly  the  Bible,  it 
is  not  at  all  ungraceful.  Of  tiJs  kind  are  the  following 
scriptural  phrases.  <  He  lifted  up  his  voice,  and  wept.* 
*  He  opened  his  mouth  and  said.'  It  is  true,  that  in  strict- 
ness, they  are  not  necessary  to  the  narration,  but  they  are 
of  some  importance  to  the  composition,  as  bearing^  the  ven- 
erable signature  of  ancient  simplicity.  It  may  on  this  oc- 
casion, be  furtiier  observed,  that  the  language  of  the  pres- 
ent translation  of  the  Bii)le,  ought  not  to  be  viewed  in  an 
exceptionable  light,  though  some  parts  of  it  may  appear  to 
be  obsolete.  From  universal  admission,  this  language  has 
become  so  familiar  and  intelligible,  that  in  all  transcripts 
and  allusions,  except  where  the  sense  is  evidently  injured, 
it  ought  .to  be  carefully  preserved.  And  it  may  also  be 
justly  remarked,  that,  on  religious  subjects,  a  frequent 


274  APPENDIX.  (Strength, 

recurrence  of  scripture  language  is  attended  with  peculiar 
force  and  propriety. 

Though  it  promotes  the  strength  of  a  sentence,  to  con- 
tract a  round  about  method  of  expression,  and  to  lop  off 
excrescences,  yet  we  should  avoid  the  extreme  of  pruning 
too  closely  :  some  leaves  should  be  left  to  shelter  and  sur- 
round the  fruit.  Even  synonymous  expressions  may,  on 
some  occasions,  be  used  with  propriety.  One  is,  when  an 
obscurer  term,  which  we  cannot  well'  avoid  employing, 
needs  to  be  explained  by  one  that  is  clearer.  The  other 
is,  when  the  language  of  the  emotions  is  exhibited.  Emo- 
tion naturally  dwells  on  its  object:  and  when  the4xader 
also  feels  interested,  repetition  and  synonymy  have  fre- 
quently an  agreeable  effect. 

The  following  passage,  taken  from  Addison,  who  de- 
lighted in  a  full  and  flowing  style,  will,  by  most  readers, 
be  deemed  not  very  exceptionable.  '  But  there  is  nothing 
that  makes  its  way  more  directly  to  the  soul  than  beauty, 
which  immediately  diffuses  a  secret  satisfaction  and  com- 
placency through  the  imagination,  and  gives  a  finishing  to 
any  thing  that  is  great  or  uncommon.  The  very  first  dis- 
covery of  it  strikes  the  mind  with  inward  joy,  and  spreads 
a  cheerfulness  and  delight  through  all  its  faculties/  Some 
degree  of  verbosity  may  be  discovered  in  these  sentences, 
as  phrases  are  repeated  which  seem  little  more  than  the 
echo  of  one  another ;  such  as — diffusing  satisfaction  and 
C07njilace7icy  through  the  imagination — striking  the  mind 
nvith  inward  joy — spreading  cheerfulness  and  delight  through 
all  its  faculties.  But,  perhaps,  some  redundancy  is  more 
allowable  on  such  lively  subjects,  than  it  would  be  on  other 
occasions. 

After  removing  superfluities,  the  second  rule  for  pro- 
moting the  strength  of  a  sentence,  is,  to  attend  particu- 
larly to  the  use  of  copulati-ues^  relatives.^  and  all  the  particles 
employed  for  transition  and  coniiexion. 

These  little  words  but^  and,  or,  ivhich,  luhoscy  lohercy 
then,  therefore,  because,  Sec.  are  frequently  the  most  im- 
portant words  of  any  ;  they  are  the  joints  or  hinges  upon 
which  all  sentences  turn  ;  and,  of  course,  much  of  their 
strength  must  dej^end  upon  such  particles.  The  varieties 
vsx  using  them  are>  indeed,  so  many?  that  no  particular 


Strength.)  perspicuity,  Sec.  275 

system  of  rules  respecting  them  can  be  given.  Some 
observations,  tending  to  illustrate  the  rule,  may,  however, 
be  mentioned. 

What  is  called  splitting  particles,  or  separating  a  pre- 
position from  the  noun  which  it  governs,  is  to  be  avoided. 
As  if  I  should  say,  '  Though  virtue  borrows  no  assistance 
from,  yet  it  may  often  be  accompanied  by,  the  advantages 
of  fortune.*  Here  we  are  put  to  a  stand  in  thought,  being 
obliged  to  rest  a  little  on  the  preposition  by  itself,  which, 
at  the  same  time,  carries  no  signilicancy,  till  it  is  joined 
to  its  proper  substantive. 

Some  writers  needlessly  multiply  demonstrative  and  re- 
lative particles,  by  the  frequent  use  of  such  phraseology  as 
this  :  *  There  is  nothing  which  disgusts  us  sooner  than  the 
empty  pomp  of  language.*  In  introducing  a  subject,  or 
laying  down  a  proposition,  to  which  we  demand  particular 
attention,  this  sort  of  style  is  very  proper ;  but,  on  common 
occasions,  it  is  better  to  express  ourselves  more  simply 
and  briefly :  '  Nothing  disgusts  us  sooner  than  the  empty 
pomp  of  language.* 

Other  writers  make  a  practice  of  omitting  the  relative, 
where  they  think  the  meaning  can  be  understood  without 
it :  as,  '  The  man  I  love  ;'  '  The  dominions  we  possessed, 
and  the  conquests  we  made.*  But  though  this  elliptical 
style  is  intelligible,  and  is  allowable  in  conversation  and 
epistolaiy  writing,  yet  in  all  writings  of  a  serious  and  dig- 
nified kind,  it  ought  to  be  avoided.  There,  the  relative 
should  always  be  inserted  in  its  proper  place,  and  the  con- 
struction filled  up.  *■  The  man  w-liom  I  love.*  '  The  do- 
minions which  we  possessed,  and  the  conquests  which  we 
made.' 

With  regard  to  the  copulative  particle  and,  which  oc- 
curs so  frequently  in  all  kinds  of  composition,  several  ob- 
servations are  to  be  made.  First,  it  is  evident,  that  the 
unnecessary  repetition  of  it  enfeebles  style.  The  follow- 
ing sentence  from  Sir  William  Temple,  will  serve  for  an 
instance.  He  is  speaking  of  the  refinement  of  the  French 
language  :  '  The  academy,  set  up  by  Cardinal  Richelieu, 
to  amuse  the  wits  of  that  age  a?2d  country,  cmd  divert  them 
fiom  raking  into  his  politics  and  ministry,  brought  this 
into  vogue  ;  and  the  French  wits  have,  for  this  last  age, 


276  APPENDIX.  (Strength; 

been  wholly  turned  to  the  refinement  of  their  style  and 
language  ;  and^  indeed,  with  such  success,  that  it  can 
hardly  be  equalled,  and  runs  equally  through  their  verse 
and  their  prose.'  Here  are  no  fewer  than  eight  ands  in  one 
sentence.  Some  writers  often  make  their  sentences  drag 
in  this  manner,  by  a  careless  multiplication  of  copulatives. 

Bat,  in  the  next  place,  it  is  worthy  of  observation,  that 
though  the  natural  use  of  the  conjunction  and,  is  to  join 
objects  together,  yet,  in  fact,  by  dropping  the  conjunction, 
we  often  mark  a  closer  connexion,  a  quicker  succession 
of  objects,  than  when  it  is  inserted  between  them.  '  I 
came,  I  saw,  I  conquered,'  expresses  with  more  force  the 
rapidity  and  quick  succession  of  conquest,  than  if  connect- 
ing particles  had  been  used. 

On  the  other  hand,  when  we  seek  to  prevent  a  quick 
transition  from  one  object  to  another,  when  we  are  making 
some*  enumeration,  in  which  we  wish  that  the  objects 
should  appear  as  distinct  from  each  other  as  possible,  and 
that  the  mind  should  rest,  for  a  moment,  on  each  object 
by  itself,  copulfitives  may  be  multiplied  with  peculiar"  ad- 
vantage. As  when  an  author  says,  *  Such  a  man  might 
fall  a  victim  to  power  ;  but  truth,  and  reason,  and  liberty, 
would  fall  v/ith  him.'  Observe,  in  the  following  enume- 
ration made  by  the  Apostle  Paul,  what  additional  weight 
and  distinctness  are  given  to  each  particular,  by  the  repe- 
tition of  a  conjunction  :  *  I  am  persuaded  that  neither 
death,  nor  life,  nor  angels,  nor  principalities,  nor  powers, 
nor  things  present,  nor  things  to  come,  nor  height,  nor 
depth,  nor  any  other  creature,  shall  be  able  to  separate  us 
from  the  love  of  God.' 

The  words  designed  to  mark  the  transition  from  one 
sentence  to  another,  and  the  connexion  between  sentences, 
are  sometimes  very  incorrect,  and  perform  their  office  in 
an  imperfect  and  obscure  manner.  The  following  is  an 
example  of  this  kind  of  inaccuracy.  *  By  greatness,  I  do 
not  mean  the  bulk  of  any  single  object  only,  but  the  large- 
ness of  a  whole  view.  Such  are  the  prospects  of  an  open 
champaign  country,  a  vast  uncultivated  desert,'  Sec.  The 
word  such  signifies  of  that  nature  or  quality,  which  neces- 
sarily presupposes  some  adjective  or  word  descriptive  of 
a  quality  going  before,  to  which  it  refers.     But,  in  the  fore 


I 


Strength.)  perspicuity,  Sec.  277 

going  sentence,  there  is  no  such  adjective.  The  author 
had  spoken  oi  greatness  m  the  abstract  only  ;  and,  there- 
fore, such  has  no  distinct  antecedent  to  which  we  can  re- 
fer it.  The  sentence  would  have  been  introduced  with 
more  propriety,  by  saying,  To  this  class  belong^  or  under 
this  head  are  ranged,  the  prospects,  &c. 

As  connective  particles  are  the  hinges,  tacks,  and  pins, 
by  which  the  words  in  the  same  clause,  the  clauses  in  the 
same  member,  the  members  in  the  same  sentence,  and 
even  the  sentences  in  the  same  discourse,  are  united  to- 
gether, and  their  relations  suggested,  so  they  should  not 
be  either  too  frequently  repeated,  awkwardly  exposed  to 
view,  or  made  up  of  polysyllables,  when  shorter  words 
would  as  well  convey  our  meaning.  J^otwithstanding  that^ 
insomuch  that,  forasmuch  as,  furthermore,  &c.  are  tedious 
words,  which  tend  to  overload  and  perplex  a  sentence. 

We  shall  conclude  this  head  with  two  remarks  on  the 
subject  of  inserting  or  omitting  the  conjunctions.  The 
first  is,  that  the  illative  conjunctions,  the  causal,  and  the 
disjunctive,  when  they  suit  the  sense,  can  more  rarely  be 
dispensed  with  than  the  copulative.  The  second  is,  that 
the  omission  of  copulatives  always  succeeds  best,  when  the 
connexion  of  the  thoughts  is  either  veiy  close,  or  very  dis- 
tant. It  is  mostly  in  the  intermediate  cases  that  the  con- 
junction is  deemed  necessary.  When  the  connexion  in 
thought  is  very  distant,  the  copulative  appears  absurd ; 
and  when  very  close,  superfluous. 

The  third  rule  for  promoting  the  strength  of  a  sentence, 
is,  to  dispose  of  the  capital  ivord,  or  ivords,  so  that  they 
may  make  the  greatest  impression. 

That  there  are,  in  every  sentence,  such  capital  words 
on  which  the  meaning  principally  rests,  every  one  must 
see  ;  and  that  these  words  should  possess  a  conspicuous 
and  distinguished  place,  is  equally  plain.  For  the  most 
part,  with  us,  the  important  words  are  placed  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  sentence.  So  in  the  following  passages  : 
'  Silver  and  gold  have  I  none  ;  but  such  as  I  have,  give  I 
unto  thee,'  8cc.  *  Your  fathers,  where  arc  they  ?  and  tlie 
prophets,  do  they  live  for  ever  ?' 

Sometimes,  however,  when  wc  intend  to  give  weight  to 
a  sentence,  it  is  of  advantage  to  suspend  the  meaning  for  a 

:  z 


278  APPENDIX.  (Strength. 

little,  and  then  bring  it  out  full  at  the  close.  <  Thus,'  says 
an  author,  '  on  whatever  side  we  contemplate  this  ancient 
writer,  what  principally  strikes  us,  is  his  wonderful  inven- 
tion/ 

To  accomplish  this  end,  the  placing  of  capital  words  in 
a  conspicuous  part  of  the  sentence,  the  natural  order  of  our 
language  must  sometimes  be  inverted.  According  to  this 
natural  order,  the  nominative  has  the  first  place,  the  verb 
the  second,  and  the  objective,  if  it  be  an  active  verb  that  is 
employed,  has  the  third.  Circumstances  follow  the  nomi- 
native, the  verb,  or  the  objective,  as  they  happen  to  belong 
to  any  of  them.  '  Diana  of  the  Ephesians  is  great,*  is  the 
natural  order  of  the  sentence.  But  its  strength  is  increas- 
ed by  inversion,  thus  :  '  Great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephesians.* 
*  I  profess,'  in  the  sincerity  of  my  heart,'  &c.  is  the  natural 
order  of  a  circumstance.  Inverted  thus  :  '  In  the  sinceri- 
ty of  my  heart,  I  profess,*  &c. 

Some  authors  greatly  invert  the  natural  order  of  sen- 
tences ;  others  write  mostly  in  a  natural  style.  Each  me- 
thod lias  its  advantages.  The  inverted  possesses  strength, 
tlignity,  and  variety :  the  other,  more  nature,  ease,  and 
simplicity.  We  shall  give  an  instance  of  each  method, 
taken  from  writers  of  considerable  eminence.  The  first 
is  of  the  inverted  order.  The  author  is  speaking  of  the 
misery  of  vice.  '  This,  as  to  the  complete  immoral  state, 
is  what,  of  their  own  accord,  men  readily  remark.  Where 
there  is  this  absolute  degeneracy,  this  total  apostacy  from 
all  candour,  truth,  or  equity,  there  are  few  vv^ho  do  not  see 
and  acknowledge  the  misery  which  is  consequent.  Sel- 
dom is  the  case  misconstrued  when  at  worst.  The  mis- 
fortune is,  that  we  look  not  on  this  depravity,  nor  consider 
how  it  stands  in  less  degrees.  As  if,  to  be  absolutely  im- 
moral, were,  indeed,  the  greatest  misery  ;  but  to  be  so  in 
a  little  degree,  should  be  no  misery  or  harm  at  all.  Whicii, 
to  allow,  is  just  as  reasonable  as  to  own,  that  it  is  the  great- 
est ill  of  a  body  to  be  in  the  utmost  manner  maimed  or 
distorted  ;  but  that  to  lose  the  use  only  of  one  limb,  or  to 
be  impaired  in  some  single  organ  or  member,  is  no  ill 
worthy  the  least  notice.*  Here  is  no  violence  done  to  the 
language,  though  there  are  many  inversions. 


Strength.)  perspicuity,  8vc.  279 

The  followmg  is  an  example  of  natural  construction  : 
'  Our  sight  is  the  most  perfect,  and  the  most  delightful, 
of  all  our  senses.  It  fills  the  mind  with  the  largest  variety 
of  ideas,  converses  with  its  objects  at  the  greatest  distance, 
and  continues  the  longest  in  action,  without  being  tired, 
or  satiated  with  its  proper  enjoyments.  The  sense  of 
feeling  can,  indeed,  give  us  a  notion  of  extension,  shape, 
and  all  other  ideas  that  enter  at  the  eye,  except  colours  ; 
but,  at  the  same  time,  it  is  very  much  straitened  and  con- 
fined in  its  operations,*  &c. 

But  whether  we  use  inversion  or  not,  and  in  whatever 
part  of  the  sentence  we  dispose  of  the  capital  words,  it  is 
always  a  point  of  consequence,  that  these  capital  words 
should  stand  clear  and  disentangled  from  any  other  words 
that  would  clog  them.  Thus,  when  there  are  any  cir- 
cumstances of  time,  place,  or  other  limitations,  which  the 
principal  object  of  our  sentence  requires  to  have  connect- 
ed with  it,  we  must  take  care  to  dispose  of  them,  so  as  not 
to  cloud  that  principal  object,  nor  to  bury  it  under  a  load 
of  circumstances.  This  will  be  made  clearer  by  an  ex- 
ample. '  If,  whilst  they  profess  only  to  please,  they  se- 
cretly advise,  and  give  instruction,  they  may  now,  per- 
haps, as  well  as  formerly,  be  esteemed,  with  justice,  the 
best  and  most  honourable  among  authors.*  This  is  a  well 
constructed  sentence.  It  contains  a  great  many  circum- 
stances and  adverbs  necessary  to  qualify  the  meaning  ; 
cnly^  secretly^  as  nvell^  jierhajis.  nonvj  ivith  justice,  formerly  ; 
yet  these  arc  placed  so  properly,  as  neither  to  embarrass, 
nor  weaken  the  sentence  ;  v/hile  that  which  is  the  capital 
object  in  it,  viz.  '  being  justly  esteemed  the  best  and  most 
honourable  among  authors,'  comes  out  in  the  conclusion 
clear  and  detached,  and  possesses  its  proper  place.  See,, 
now,  what  would  have  been  the  effect  of  a  different  ar- 
rangement :  ^  If,  whilst  they  profess  to  please  only,  they 
advise  and  give  instruction  secretly,  they  may  be  esteemed 
the  best  and  most  honourable  among  authors,  with  jus- 
tice, perhaps,  now  as  well  as  formerly.'  Here  we  have 
precisely  the  same  words,  and  the  same  sense  ;  but  by 
means  of  the  circumstances  being  so  intermingled  as  to 
clog  the  capital  words,  the  whole  becomes  feeble  and  per- 
plexed. 


280  APPENDIX.  (Strength, 

The  fourth  rule  for  promoting  the  strength  of  sen- 
tences, is,  that  a  weaker  assertion  or  profiosition  should 
never  come  after  a  stronger  one  ;  and  that-^  ivhen  our  sen- 
tence consists  of  two  members^  the  longer  should,  generally , 
be  the  concluding  one. 

Thus,  to  say,  *  When  our  passions  have  forsaken  us, 
we  flatter  ourselves  with  the  belief  that  we  have  forsaken 
them,'  is  both  more  easy  and  more  clear,  than  to  begin 
with  the  longer  part  of  the  proposition  :  '  We  flatter  our- 
selves with  the  belief  that  we  have  forsaken  our  passions, 
when  they  have  forsaken  us.* 

In  general,  it  is  agreeable  to  find  a  sentence  rising  upon- 
us,  and  growing  in  its  importance,  to  the  very  last  word, 
when  this  construction  can  be  managed  without  affecta- 
tion. '  If  we  rise  yet  higher,'  says  Addison,  '  and  consider 
the  fixed  stars  as  so  many  oceans  of  flame,  that  are  each 
of  them  attended  with  a  different  set  of  planets  ;  and  still 
discover  new  firmaments  and  new  lights,  that  are  sunk 
further  in  those  unfathomable  depths  of  ether ;  we  are 
lost  in  such  a  labyrinth  of  suns  and  worlds,  and  confound- 
ed with  the  magnificence  and  immensity  of  nature.' 

Thcffth  rule  for  the  strength  of  sentences  is,  to  avoid 
concluding  them  with  an  adverb .,  a  fireposition,  or  anij  incon' 
siderable  word. 

Agreeably  to  this  rule,  we  should  not  conclude  with  any 
of  the  particles,  of  to^from^  with,  by.  For  instance,  it  is 
a  great  deal  better  to  say,  '  Avarice  is  a  crime  of  which 
wise  men  are  often  guilty,'  than  to  say,  '  Avarice  is  a 
crime  which  wise  men  are  often  guilty  of.'  This  is  a 
phraseology  which  all  correct  writers  shun  ;  and  with  rea- 
son. For  as  the  mind  cannot  help  resting  a  little,  on  the 
import  of  the  word  which  closes  the  sentence,  it  must  be 
disagreeable  to  be  left  pausing  on  a  word,  which  does  not, 
by  itself,  produce  any  idea. 

For  the  same  reason,  verbs  which  are  used  in  a  com* 
pound  sense,  with  some  of  those  prepositions,  are,  though 
not  so  bad,  yet  still  not  proper  conclusions  of  a  period  : 
such  as,  bring  about,  lay  hold  of  come  over  to,  clear  ufi, 
and  many  other  of  this  kind  ;  instead  of  which,  if  we  can 
employ  a  simple  verb,  it  always  terminates  the  sentence 
wuth  more   strength.     Even  the  pronoun  it^  should,  if 


Strength.)  perspicuity,  &c.  28 1 

possible,  be  avoided  in  the  conclusion  :  especially  when  it 
is  joined  with  some  of  the  prepositions  ;  as,  noith  it,  in  it^ 
to  it.  We  shall  be  sensible  of  this  in  the  following  sen- 
tence. *  There  is  not,  in  my  opinion,  a  more  pleasint^ 
and  triumphant  consideration  in  religion,  than  this,  of  the 
perpetual  progress  which  the  soul  makes  towards  the 
perfection  of  its  nature,  without  ever  arriving  at  a  period 
in  it*  How  much  more  agreeable  the  sentence,  if  it  had 
been  so  constructed  as  to  close  with  the  word  period  I 

Besides  particles  and  pronouns,  any  phrase,  which  ex- 
presses a  circumstance  only,  always  appears  badly  in  the 
rear  of  a  sentence.  We  may  judge  of  this  by  the  follow- 
ing passage  :  *  Let  me  therefore  concliKle  by  repeating, 
that  division  has  caused  all  the  mischief  we  lament  ;  that 
union  alone  can  retrieve  it ;  and  that  a  great  advance  to- 
wards this  union,  was  the  coalition  of  parties,  so  happily 
begun,  so  successfully  carried  on,  and  of  late  so  unaccount- 
ably neglected  ;  to  say  no  worse.*  This  last  phrase  '  to 
say  no  worse,'  occasions  a  falling  off  at  the  end.  The 
proper  disposition  of  such  circumstances  in  a  sentence, 
requires  attention,  in  order  to  adjust  them  so  as  shall  con- 
sist equally  with  the  perspicuity  and  the  strength  of  the 
period. — Though  necessary  parts,  they  are,  however,  like 
irregular  stones  in  a  building,  which  try  the  skill  of  aa 
artist,  where  to  place  them  with  the  least  offence.  But 
it  must  be  rememberetl,  that  the  close  is  always  an  unsuit- 
able place  for  them.  Notwithstanding  what  has  been  said 
against  concluding  a  period  with  an  adverb,  &cc.  this  must 
not  be  understood  to  refer  to  such  words,  when  the  stress 
and  significancy  of  the  sentence  rest  chiefly  upon  them. — 
In  this  case  they  are  not  to  be  considered  as  circumstan- 
ces, but  as  the  principal  objects  :  as  in  the  following  sen- 
tence. *  In  their  prosperity,  my  friends  shall  never  hear 
of  me,  in  their  adversity,  always.*  Here,  '  never,*  and' 
<  always*  being  emphatical  words,  were  to  be  so  placed  as 
to  make  a  strong  impression. 

The  sixth  rule  relating  to  the  strength  of  a  sentences 
Is,  that,  in  the  members  of  a  sentence,  where  two  things  are 
compared  or  contrasted  with  one  another  ;  where  either  a 
resemblance  or  an  ofifiosition  is  intended  to  be  expressed  j 
S9me  resemblance^  in  the  language  and  construction^  should. 
Z2 


£82  APPENDIX^  (Strength. 

be  preserved.  For  when  the  things  themselves  correspond 
to  each  other^  nve  naturally  expect  to  Jind  a  similar  corres" 
pondence  in  the  words. 

Thus,  when  it  is  said,  '  The  wise  man  is  happy  when 
he  gains  his  own  approbation  ;  the  fool,  when  he  recom- 
mends himself  to  the  applause  of  those  about  him  ;'  the 
opposition  would  have  been  more  complete,  if  it  had  been 
expressed  thus  :  '  The  wise  man  is  happy  when  he  gains 
his  own  approbation  ;  the  fool,  when  he  gains  that  of 
others.* 

*  A  friend  exaggerates  a  man's  virtues  :  an  enemy  in- 
flames his  crimes.*  Better  thus  :  *  A  friend  exaggerates 
a  man's  virtues  ;  an  enemy,  his  crimes.* 

The  following  passage  from  Pope's  Preface  to  his  Ho- 
mer, fully  exemplifies  the  rule  just  given  :  '  Homer  was 
the  greater  genius  ;  Virgil,  the  better  artist  :  in  the  one, 
we  most  admire  the  man  ;  in  the  other,  the  work.  Ho- 
mer hurries  us  with  a  commanding  impetuosity  ;  Virgil 
leads  us  with  an  attractive  majesty.  Homer  scatters  with 
a  generous  profusion  ;  Virgil  bestows  with  a  careful 
magnificence.  Homer,  like  the  Nile,  pours  out  his  riches 
with  a  sudden  overflow  ;  Virgil,  like  a  river  in  its  banks, 
with  a  constant  stream.* — Periods  thus  constructed,  when 
introduced  with  propriety,  and  not  returning  too  often, 
have  a  sensible  beauty.  But  we  must  beware  of  carrying 
our  attention  to  this  beauty  too  far.  It  ought  only  to  be 
occasionally  studied,  when  comparison  or  opposition  of 
objects  naturally  leads  to  it.  If  such  a  construction  as 
this  be  aimed  at,  in  all  our  sentences,  it  leads  to  a  dis- 
agreeable uniformity  ;  produces  a  regularly  returning 
clink  in  the  period,  which  tires  the  ear  ;  and  plainly  dis- 
covers affectation. 

The  seventh  rule  for  promoting  the  strength  and  effect 
of  sentences,  isj  to  attend  to  the  sound^  the  harmony^  and 
easyjiow  of  the  words  and  members. 

Sound  is  a  quality  much  inferior  to  sense  ;  yet  such  as 
must  not  be  disregarded.  For,  as  long  as  sounds  are  the 
vehicle  or  conveyance  for  our  ideas,  there  will  be  a  very 
considerable  connexion  between  the  idea  which  is  convey- 
ed, and  the  nature  of  the  sound  which  conveys  it.  Pleas- 
ip.g  ideas,  and  forcible  reasoning,  can  hardly  be  transmit- 


Strength.)  perspicuity,  he.  28S 

ted  to  the  mind,  by  means  of  harsh  and  disagreeable 
sounds.  The  mind  revolts  at  such  sounds,  and  the  im- 
pression of  the  sentiment  must  consequently  be  weaken- 
ed. The  observations  which  we  have  to  make  on  thia 
subject,  respect  the  choice  of  words  ;  their  arrangement ; 
the  order  and  disposition  of  the  members  ;  and  the  ca- 
dence or  close  of  sentences. 

We  begin  with  the  choice  of  words.  It  is  evident,  that 
words  are  most  agreeable  to  the  ear,  when  they  are  com- 
posed of  smooth  and  liquid  sounds,  in  which  there  is  a 
proper  intermixture  of  vowels  and  consonants  ;  without 
too  many  harsh  consonants  rubbing  against  each  other  ; 
or  too  many  open  vowels  in  succession,  to  cause  a  hiatus, 
or  disagreeable  aperture  of  the  mouth. 

It  may  always  be  assumed  as  a  principle,  that  whatever 
sounds  are  difficult  in  pronunciation,  are,  in  the  same  pro^ 
portion,  harsh  and  painful  to  the  ear.  Vowels  give  soft- 
ness ;  consonants,  strength  to  the  sound  of  words.  The 
melody  of  language  requires  a  just  proportion  of  each  ; 
and  the  construction  will  be  hurt,  will  be  rendered  either 
grating  or  effeminate,  by  an  excess  of  either.  Long 
words  are  commonly  more  agreeable  to  the  ear  than 
monosyllables.  They  please  it  by  the  composition  or  suc- 
cession of  sounds  which  they  present  to  it  ;  and  accord- 
ingly, the  most  harmonious  languages  abound  most  in 
them.  Among  words  of  any  length,  those  are  the  most 
melodious,  which  do  not  run  wholly  either  upon  long  or 
short  syllables,  but  are  composed  of  an  intermixture  of 
them  :  such  as,  re/ieni,  firofcss,  jionverful^  velocity^  celerU 
tt/y  indefiendenty  impetuosity. 

If  we  would  speak  forcibly  and  effectually,  we  must 
avoid  the  use  of  such  words  as  the  following  ;  1.  Such  as 
are  composed  of  words  already  compounded,  the  several 
parts  of  which  are  not  easily,  and  therefore  not  closely  unit- 
ed :  as,  *•  Unsuccesfifulness^  ivrongheadedness^  tenderheart' 
ednesa  /  2.  .Such  as  have  the  syllables  which  immediate- 
ly follow  the  accented  syllable,  crowded  with  consonants, 
that  do  not  easily  coalesce  ;  as,  "  Questionless,  chroniclei'Si 
conventiclers  ;'  3.  Such  as  have  too  many  syllables  fol- 
lowing the  accented  syllable  :  as,  ^  Primarily,  cursorily, 
iummarily)  iieranfitoriness  ;'    4,  Such  us  have  a  short  or 


284  APPENDIX.  (Strength.- 

unaccented  syllable  repeated,  or  followed  by  another  shoit 
or  unaccented  syllable  very  much  resembling  :  as,  *  Holi- 
ly,  sillily.,  loivlily^  farriery*  A  little  harshness,  by  the 
collision  of  consonants,  which  nevertheless  our  organs 
find  no  difficulty  in  articulating,  and  which  do  not  suggest 
to  the  hearer  the  disagreeable  idea  either  of  precipitation 
or  of  stammering,  is  by  no  means  a  sufficient  reason  for 
suppressing  a  useful  term.  The  words  hedg*d^  Jiedg'd^ 
wedg*d,  drudg'd^  grudg*dy  adjudged,  which  some  have 
thought  very  offensive,  are  not  exposed  to  the  objections 
which  lie  against  the  words  above  mentioned.  We  should 
not  do  well  to  introduce  such  hard  and  strong  sounds  too 
frequently  ;  but  when  they  are  used  sparingly  and  pro- 
perly, they  have  even  a  good  effect.  They  contribute  to 
that  variety  in  sound  which  is  advantageous  to  language. 

The  next  head,  respecting  the  harmony  which  results 
from  a  proper  arrangement  of  words,  is  a  point  of  greater 
nicety.  For,  let  the  words  themselves  be  ever  so  well 
chosen,  and  well  sounding,  yet,  if  they  be  ill  disposed,  tho 
melody  of  the  sentence  is  utterly  lost,  or  greatly  impaired. 
That  this  is  the  case,  the  learners  will  perceive  by  the 
following  examples.  ^  Pleasures  simple  and  moderate  al- 
ways are  the  best  ;'  it  would  be  better  to  say,  '  Simple 
and  moderate  pleasures  are  always  the  best.'  *  Office  or 
rank  may  be  the  recompense  of  intrigue,  versatility,  or 
flattery  ;'  better  thus,  '  Rank  or  office  may  be  the  recom- 
pense of  flattery,  versatility,  or  intrigue.'  *  A  great  re- 
commendation of  the  guidance  offered  by  integrity  to  us, 
is,  that  it  is  by  all  men  easily  understood  :'  better  in  this 
form  ;  '  It  is  a  great  recommendation  of  the  guidance  of- 
fered to  us  by  integrity,  that  it  is  easily  understood  by  all 
m^en.*  In  the  following  examples,  the  words  are  neither 
selected  nor  arranged,  so  as  to  produce  the  most  agreea^ 
ble  effect.  ^  If  we  make  the  best  of  our  life,  it  is  but  as  a 
pilgrimage,  with  dangers  surrounding  it  :'    better  thus, 

*  Our  life,  at  the  best,  is  a  pilgrimage,  and  dangers  sur- 
round it.*  *  We  see  that  we  are  encumbered  with  diffi- 
culties, which  we  cannot  prevent :'  better,  '  We  perceive 
ourselves  involved  in  difficulties   that  cannot  be  avoided.* 

*  It  is  plain  to  any  one  who  views  the  subject,  even  slight- 
ly, that  there  is  nothing  Ugre  that  ;s  without  allay  andb 


I 


Strength.)  perspicuity,  &c.  285 

pure  :*  improved  by  this  form  ;  <  It  is  evident  to  the 
slightest  inspection,  that  nothing  here  is  unallayed  and 
pure.' 

We  may  take,  for  an  instance  of  a  sentence  remarkably 
harmonious,  the  following  from  Milton*s  Treatise  on  Ed- 
ucation :  *  We  shall  conduct  you  to  a  hill-side,  laborious 
indeed,  at  the  first  ascent  ;  but  else  so  smooth,  so  green, 
so  full  of  goodly  prospects,  and  melodious  sounds  on  every 
side,  that  the  harp  of  Orpheus  was  not  more  charming.* 
Every  thing  in  this  sentence  conspires  to  promote  the 
harmony.  The  words  are  well  chosen  ;  full  of  liquidsj 
and  soft  sounds  ;  laborioufs^  smooth^  green,  goodly,  melodi- 
ous, c/iartniiig  ;  and  these  words  so  artfully  arranged,  that, 
were  we  to  alter  the  situation  of  any  one  of  them,  we 
should,  presently,  be  sensible  of  the  melody's  suffering. 

To  promote  this  harmoniousarrangement  of  words,  the 
following  general  directions  will  be  found  of  some  use. — • 
1st.  When  the  preceding  word  ends  v/ith  a  vowel,  let  the 
subsequent  one  begin  with  a  consonant  ;  and  vice  versa.-. 
A  true  friend,  a  cruel  enemy,  are  smoother  and  easier  to 
the  voice,  than  a  true  union,  a  cruel  destroyer.  But  when 
it  is  more  perspicuous  or  convenient,  for  vowels  or  con* 
sonants  to  end  one  word  and  begin  the  next,  it  is  proper 
that  the  vowels  be  a  long  and  short  one  ;  and  that  the 
consonants  be  either  a  liquid  and  a  mute,  or  liquids  of  dif- 
ferent sorts  :  thus,  a  lovely  offspring ;  a  purer  design  ;  a 
calm  retreat ;  are  more  fluent  than,  a  Iiafifiy  union,  a  brief 
petition,  a  cheap  triumph,  a  putrid  distemper,  a  calm  ma- 
tron, a  clean  nurse.  From  these  examples-,  the  student 
will  perceive  the  importance  of  accurately  understanding 
the  nature  of  vowels  and  consonants,  liquids  and  mutes  ; 
with  the  connexioR  and  influence  which  subsist  amongst 
them.  2d.  In  general,  a  considerable  number  of  long  or 
short  words  near  one  another  should  be  avoided.  '  Dis- 
appointment in  our  expectations  is  wretchedness  :'  bet- 
ter thus  ;  '  Disappointed  hope  is  misery.*  *  No  course 
of  joy  can  please  us  long  :'  better,  '  No  course  of  enjoy- 
ment can  delight  us  long.*  A  succession  of  words  hav- 
ing the  same  quantity  in  the  accented  syllables,  whether 
it  be  long  or  short,  should  also  be  avoided.  *  James  was 
needy,  feeble,  and  fearful  :*  itnprovcd  thus,  <  James  wa« 


286  APPENDIX.  (Strength, 

timid,  feeble,  and  destitute.*  *  They  could  not  be  happy  ; 
for  he  was  silly,  pettish^  and  sullen  ;'  better  thus  ;  «  They 
could  not  be  happy  ;  for  he  was  simple,  peevish,  and  gloo- 
my/ 3d.  Words  which  begin  alike,  or  end  alike,  must 
not  come  together  ;  and  the  last  syllable  of  the  preceding 
word,  should  not  be  the  same  as  the  first  syllable  of  the 
subsequent  one.  It  is  not  so  pleasing  and  harmonious  to 
say,  '  This  is  a  convenient  contrivance  ;'  '  He  is  an  indul- 
gent parent  ;'  *  She  behaves  with  uniform  formality  ;' 
as,  *  This  is  a  useful  contrivance  ;'  *  He  is  a  kind  pa- 
rent ;*  *  She  behaves  with  unvaried  formality.* 

,Wc  proceed  to  consider  the  members  of  a  sentence, 
with  regard  to  harmony.  They  should  not  be  too  long, 
nor  disproportionate  to  each  other.  When  they  have  a  re- 
gular and  proportional  division,  they  are  much  easier  to 
the  voice,  are  more  clearly  understood,  and  better  remem- 
bered, than  when  this  rule  is  not  attended  to :  for  what- 
ever tires  the  voice,  and  offends  the  ear,  is  apt  to  mar  the 
strength  of  the  expression,  and  to  degrade  the  sense  of 
the  author.  And  this  is  a  sufficient  ground  for  paying  at- 
tention to  the  order  and  proportion  of  sentences,  and  the 
different  parts  of  which  th«y  consist.  The  following  pas- 
sage exhibits  sentences  in  which  the  different  members 
are  proportionally  arranged. 

Temple,  speaking  sarcastically  of  man,  says:  ^  But  his 
pride  is  greater  than  his  ignorance,  and  what  he  wants  in 
knowledge  he  supplies  by  sufficiency.  When  he  has 
looked  about  him  as  far  as  he  can,  he  concludes  there  is 
no  more  to  bo  seen  ;  when  he  is  at  the  end  of  his  line,  he 
is  at  the  bottom  of  the  ocean  ;  when  he  has  shot  his  best, 
he  is  sure  none  ever  did,  or  ever  can_,  shoot  better,  or  be- 
yond it.  His  own  reason  he  holds  to  be  the  certain  mea- 
sure of  truth  ;  and  his  own  knowledge,  of  what  is  possible 
in  nature.*  Here  every  thing  is  at  once  easy  to  the 
breath,  grateful  to  the  ear,  and  intelligible  to  the  under- 
standing. See  another  example  of  the  same  kind,  in  the 
17th  and  18th  verses  of  the  3d  chapter  of  the  prophet  Ha- 
bakkuk.  We  may  remark  here,  that  our  present  version 
of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  especially  of  the  Psalms,  abounds 
with  instances  of  an  harmonious  arrangement  of  the 
words  and  members  of  sentences. 


Strength.)  PERSPictriTV,  Sec'  287 

In  the  following*  quotation  from  Tillotson,  we  shall  be- 
come sensible  of  an  effect  very  different  from  that  of  the 
preceding  sentences.  *  This  discourse,  concerning  the 
easiness  of  the  Divine  commands,  does  all  along  suppose 
and  acknowledge  the  difficulties  of  the  first  entrance  upon 
a  religious  course  ;  except  only  in  those  persons  who 
have  had  the  happiness  to  be  trained  up  to  religion,  by  the 
easy  and  insensible  degrees  of  a  pious  and  virtuous  educa- 
tion.* Here  there  is  some  degree  of  harshness  and  un- 
pleasantness, owing  principally  to  this,  that  there  is  pro- 
perly no  more  than  one  pause  or  rest  in  the  sentence,  fall- 
ing betwixt  the  two  members  into  which  it  is  divided  : 
each  of  which  is  so  long  as  to  occasion  a  considerable 
stretch  of  the  breath  in  pronouncing  it. 

With  respect  to  the  cadence  or  close  of  a  sentence,  care 
should  be  taken,  that  it  be  not  abrupt,  or  unpleasant.  The 
following  instances  may  be  sufficient  to  show  the  propriety 
of  some  attention  to  this  part  of  the  rule.  '  Virtue,  dili- 
gence, and  industry,  joined  with  good  temper  and  pru- 
dence, are  prosperous  in  general.'  It  would  be  better 
thus :  <  Virtue,  diligence,  and  industry,  joined  with  good 
temper  and  prudence,  have  ever  been  found  the  surest 
road  to  prosperity.*  An  author  speaking  of  the  Trinity, 
expresses  himself  thus  :  '  It  is  a  mystery  which  we  firmly 
believe  the  truth  of,  and  humbly  adore  tlie  depth  of.*  How 
much  better  would  it  have  been  with  this  transposition  : 
*  It  is  a  mystery,  the  truth  of  which  we  firmly  believe,  and 
the  depth  of  which  we  humbly  adore.* 

In  order  to  give  a  sentence  this  proper  close,  the  longest 
member  of  it  and  the  fullest  v/ords,  should  be  reserved  to 
the  conclusion.  But  in  the  distribution  of  the  members, 
and  in  the  cadence  of  the  period,  as  well  as  in  the  sen- 
tences themselves,  variety  must  be  observed  ;  for  the 
mind  soon  tires  with  a  frequent  repetition  of  the  same  tone. 

Though  attention  to  the  words  and  members,  and  the 
close  of  sentences,  must  not  be  neglected,  yet  it  must  also 
be  kept  within  proper  bounds.  Sense  has  its  own  harmo- 
ny ;  and  in  no  instance  should  perspicuity,  precision,  or 
strength  of  sentiment,  be  sacrificed  to  sound.  All  un- 
meaning words,  introduced  merely  to  round  the  period,  or 
iill  up  the  melody,  are  great  blemishes  in  writiiig.     They 


^ 


288  APPENDIX,  (Figures* 

are  childish  and  trivial  ornaments,  by  which  a  sentence  al- 
ways loses  more  in  point  of  weight,  than  it  can  gain  by 
such  additions  to  its  sound. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

OF    FIGURES    OF    SPEECH. 

The  fourth  requisite  of  a  perfect  sentence,  is  a  judi- 
cious use  of  the  Figures  of  speech. 

As  figurative  language  is  to  be  met  with  in  almost  every 
sentence  ;  and,  when  properly  employed,  confers  beauty 
and  strength  on  composition ;  some  knowledge  of  it  ap- 
pears to  be  indispensable  to  the  scholars,  who  are  learn- 
ing to  form  their  sentences  with  perspicuity,  accuracy, 
and  force.  We  shall,  therefore,  enumerate  the  pjrincipal 
figures,  and  give  them  some  explanation. 

In  general,  Figures  of  Speech  imply  some  departure 
from  simplicity  of  expression  ;  the  iclea  which  we  mean 
to  convey  is  expressed  in  a  particular  manner,  and  with 
some  circumstance  added,  which  is  designed  to  render 
the  impression  more  strong  and  vivid.  When  I  say,  for 
instance,  *  That  a  good  man  enjoys  comfort  in  the  midst 
of  adversity  ;'  I  just  express  my  thoughts  in  the  simplest 
manner  possible  :  but  when  I  say,  '  To  the  upright  there 
ariseth  light  in  darkness  ;*  the  same  sentiment  is  express- 
ed in  a  figurative  style  ;  a  new  circumstance  is  introduced  ; 
*  light,'  is  put  in  the  place  of  '  comfort,*  and  '  darkness' 
is  used  to  suggest  the  idea  of  <  adversity.*  In  the  same 
manner,  to  say,  '  It  is  impossible,  by  any  search  we  can 
make,  to  explore  the  Divine  Nature  fully,*  is  to  make  a 
simple  proposition  :  but  when  we  say,  '  Canst  thou,  by 
searching,  find  out  the  Lord  ?  Canst  thou  find  out  the 
Almighty  to  perfection  ?  It  is  as  high  as  heaven,  what  canst 
thou  do  ?  deeper  than  hell,  what  canst  thou  know  f*  this 
introduces  a  figure  into  style  ;  the  proposition  being  not 
only  expressed,  but  with  it  admiration  and  astonishment. 

But,  though  figures  imply  a  deviation  from  what  may 
be  reckoned  the  most  simple  form  of  speech,  we  are  not 
thence  to  conclude,  that  they  imply  any  thing  uncommon, 
or  unnatural.  On  many  occasions,  they  are  both  the  most 
natural,  and  the  most  common  method  of  uttering  our 
sentiments.     It  would  be  very  difficult  to  compose  any 


Figures.)  perspicuity,  Sec.  289 

discourse,  without  using  them  often  ;  nay,  there  are  few 
sentences  of  considerable  length,  in  which  there  does  not 
occur  some  expression  that  m^y  be  termed  a  figure.  This 
being  the  case,  we  may  see  the  necessity  of  some  atten- 
tion, in  order  to  understand  their  nature  and  use. 

At  the  commencement  of  language,  men  would  begin 
with  giving  names  to  the  different  objects  which  they  dis- 
cerned, or  thought  of.  The  stock  of  words  would,  then ,  be 
very  small.  As  men*s  ideas  multiplied,  and  their  acquaint- 
ance with  objects  increased,  their  store  of  names  and 
words  would  also  increase.  But  to  the  vast  variety  of  ob- 
jects and  ideas,  no  language  is  adequate.  No  language  is 
so  copious,  as  to  have  a  separate  word  for  every  separate 
idea.  Men  naturally  sought  to  abridge  this  labour  of  mul- 
tiplying words  without  end  ;  and,  in  order  to  lay  less  bur- 
den on  their  memories,  made  one  v/ord,  which  they  had 
already  appropriated  to  a  certain  idea  or  object,  stand  also 
for  some  other  idea  or  object,  between  which  and  the  pri- 
mary one,  they  found,  or  fancied,  some  relation.  The 
names  of  sensible  objects,  were  the  words  most  early  in- 
troduced ;  and  were,  by  degrees,  extended  to  those  men- 
tal objects,  of  which  men  had  more  obscure  conceptions, 
and  to  which  they  found  it  more  difficult  to  assign  distinct 
names.  They  borrowed,  therefore,  the  name  of  some 
sensible  idea,  where  their  imagination  found  some  affini- 
ty. Thus,  we  speak  of  a /i/eraw^- judgment,  and  a  c/car 
head ;  a  soft  or  a  hard  heart ;  a  rough  or  a  smooth  be- 
haviour. We  say,  inflamed  by  anger,  warmed  by  love, 
sivelled  with  pride,  melted  into  grief ;  and  these  are  almost 
the  only  significant  words  which  we  have  for  such  ideas. 

The  principal  advantages  of  figures  of  speech,  are  the 
two  following. 

First.  They  enrich  language,  and  render  it  more  co- 
pious. By  their  means,  words  and  phrases  are  multiplied, 
for  expressing  all  sorts  of  ideas  ;  for  describing  even  the 
minutest  difterences  ;  the  nicest  shades  and  colours  of 
thought ;  which  no  language  could  possibly  do  by  proper 
words  alone,  without  assistance  from  Tropes. 

Secondly.  They  frequently  give  us  a  much  clearer  and 
more  striking  view  of  the  principal  object,  than  we  could 
liave,  if  it  were  expl-essed  in  simple  terms,  and  divested  of 
Aa 


290  APPENDIX.  (Figures. 

its  accessory  idea.  By  a  well  chosen  figure,  even  convic- 
tion is  assisted,  and  the  impression  of  a  truth  upon  the  mind, 
made  more  lively  and  forcible  than  it  would  otherwise  be. 
We  perceive  this  in  the  following  illustration  of  Young  : 
*  When  we  dip  too  deep  in  pleasure,  we  always  stir  a  sed- 
iment that  renders  it  impure  and  noxious  :*  and  in  this  in- 
stance :  '  A  heart  boiling  with  violent  passions,  will  always 
send  up  infatuating  fumes  to  the  head.*  An  image  that 
presents  so  much  congruity  between  a  moral  and  a  sensi- 
ble idea,  serves,  like  an  argument  from  analogy,  to  enforce 
what  the  author  asserts,  and  to  induce  belief. 

Having  considered  the  general  nature  of  figures,  we  pro- 
ceed ne:yt  to  particularize  such  of  them  as  are  of  the  most 
importance  ;  viz.  Metaphor,  Allegory,  Comparison,  Me- 
tonymy, Synecdoche,  Personification,  Apostrophe,  Anti- 
thesis, Interrogation,  Exclamation,  Amplification,  or  Cli- 
max, Sec. 

A  MetajihoT  is  a  figure  founded  entirely  on  the  resem- 
blance which  one  object  bears  to  another.  Hence,  it  is 
much  allied  to  simile  or  comparison,  and  is  indeed  no  other 
than  a  comparison,  expressed  in  an  abridged  form.  When 
I  say  of  some  great  minister,  '•  that  he  upholds  the  state, 
like  a  pillar  which  supports  the  weight  of  a  whole  edifice,* 
I  fairly  make  a  comparison  :  but  when  I  say  of  such  a  min- 
ister, '  That  he  is  the  pillar  of  the  state,'  it  now  becomes 
a  metaphor.  In  the  latter  case,  the  comparison  between 
the  minister  and  a  pillar  is  made  in  the  mind :  but  it  is  ex- 
pressed without  any  of  the  words  that  denote  comparison. 

The  following  are  examples  of  metaphor  taken  from 
Scripture  :  '  I  will  be  unto  her  a  wall  cf  fire  round  about, 
and  will  be  the  glory  in  the  midst  of  her.'  '  Thou  art 
my  rock  and  my  fortress.*  '  Thy  word  is  a  lamp  to  my 
feet,  and  a  light  to  my  path. 

Rules  to  be  observed  in  the  use  of  metaphors. 
.  1.  Metaphors^  as  ivdl  as  other  Jigures,  should^  on  no  oc- 
casion^ be  stuck  on  profusely  ;  and  should  always  he  such  as 
accord  with  the  strain  of  our  sentiment.  The  latter  part  of 
the  following  passage,  from  a  late  historian,  is  in  this  res- 
pect, very  exceptionable.  He  is  giving  an  account  of  the 
famous  act  of  parliament  against  irregular  marriages  in 
England.  *  The  bill,'  says  he, '  underwent  a  great  number 


Figures.)  perspicuity,  he.  2'91 

of  alterations  and  amendments,  which  were  not  effected 
without  violent  contest.  At  length,  however,  it  was  float- 
ed through  both  houses  on  the  tide  of  a  great  majority, 
and  steered  into  the  safe  harbour  of  royal  approbation.* 

2.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  reseinblance^  which  is 
the  ^foundation  of  the  metaphor^  be  clear  and  perspicuous^  not 

farfetched^  nor  difficult  to  discover.  The  transgression  of 
this  rule  makes  wliat  are  called  harsh  or  forced  meta- 
phors ;  which  are  displeasing,  because  they  puzzle  the 
reader,  and  instead  of  illustrating  the  thought,  render  it 
perplexed  and  intricate. 

3.  In  the  third  place,  we  should  be  careful,  in  the  con- 
duct of  metaphors,  ?iever  to  jumble  metaphorical  and  plain 
language  together.  An  author,  addressing  himself  to  the 
king,  says : 

To  thee  the  world  its  present  homage  pays  : 
The  /uirvest  early,  but  mature  the  praise. 
It  is  plain,  that,  had  not  the  rhyme  misled  him  to  the 
choioe  of  an  improper  phrase,  he  would  have  said. 

The  harvest  early,  but  mature  the  crop  ; 
and  so  would  have  continued  the  figure  which  he  had  be- 
gun. Whereas,  by  dropping  it  unfinished,  and  by  em- 
ploying the  literal  word  '  praise,'  when  we  were  expecting 
something  that  related  to  the  harvest,  the  figure  is  broken, 
and  the  two  members  of  the  sentence  have  no  suitable 
correspondence  to  each  other. 

4.  We  should  avoid  making  two  inconsistent  metaphors 
meet  on  one  object.  This  is  what  is  called  mi.red  meta- 
phor, and  is  indeed  one  of  the  greatest  misapplications  of 
this  figure.  One  maybe  'sheltered  under  the  patronage 
of  a  great  man  :'  but  it  would  be  wrong  to  say,  *  sheltered 
under  the  mask  of  dissimulation  :'  as  a  mask  conceals,  but 
does  not  slielter.     Addison,  in  his  letter  from  Italy,  says  : 

I  bi^idle  in  my  struggling  muse  with  pain, 
That  longs  to  launch  into  a  bolder  strain. 
The  muse,  figured  as  a  horse,  may  be  bridled  ;  but  when 
we  speak  of  launching,  we  make  it  a  ship  :  and  by  ro  force 
of  imagination,  can  it  be  supposed  both  a  horse  and  a  ship 
at  one  moment ;  bridled,  to  hinder  it  from  launching. 

The  same  author,  elsewhere  says,  '  There  is  not  a  sin- 
gle view  of  human  nature,  which  is  not  sufficient  to  eX' 


5292  APPENDIX.  (Figures." 

HngidsJi  the  seeds  of  pride.*  Observe  the  incoherence  of 
the  things  here  joined  together ;  making  a  view  extin- 
guishy  and  extinguish  seeds. 

As  metaphors  ought  never  to  be  mixed,  so  they  should 
not  be  crowded  together  on  the  same  object ;  for  the  mind 
has  difficuky  in  passing  readily  through  many  different 
views  of  the  same  object,  presented  in  quick  succession. 

The  last  rule  concerning  metaphors,  is,  that  they  be  not 
too  far  pursued.  If  the  resemblance,  on  which  the  figure 
is  founded,  be  long  dwelt  upon,  and  carried  into  all  its  mi- 
nute circumstances,  we  tire  the  reader,  who  soon  grows 
disgusted  with  this  stretch  of  fancy;  and  we  render  our 
discourse  obscui'e.  This  is  is  c^Wtd  straining  a  metaphor . 
Authors  of  a  lively  and  strong  imagination  are  apt  to  run 
into  this  exuberance  of  metaphor.  When  they  hit  upon 
a  figure  that  pleases  them,  they  are  loth  to  part  with  it, 
and  frequently  continue  it  so  long,  as  to  become  tedious 
and  intricate.  We  may  observe,  for  instance,  how  the 
follo^ving  metaphor  is  spun  out. 

Thy  thoughts  are  vagabonds  ;  all  outward  bound, 

'Midst  sands,  and  rocks,  and  storms,  to  cruise  for  plea- 
sure : 

If  gain'd,  dear  bought;  and  better  missM  than  gain*d. 

Fancy  and  sense,  from  an  infected  shore. 

Thy  cargo  bring  ;  and  pestilence  the  prize  : 

Then  such  a  thirst,  insatiable  thirst, 

By  fond  indulgence  but  inflam'd  the  more ; 

Fancy  still  cruises,  when  poor  sense  is  tired. 

An  Allegory  may  be  regarded  as  a  metaphor  continued  ; 
since  it  is  the  representation  of  some  one  thing  by  another 
that  resembles  it,  and  which  is  made  to  stand  for  it.  We 
may  take  from  the  Scriptures  a  very  fine  example  of  an 
allegory,  in  the  80th  psalm  ;  where  the  people  of  Israel 
are  represented  under  the  image  of  a  vine  :  and  the  figure 
is  carried  throughout  with  great  exactness  and  beauty. 
*  Thou  hast  brought  a  vine  out  of  Egypt :  thou  hast  cast 
out  the  heathen  and  planted  it.  Thou  preparedst  room 
before  it ;  and  didst  cause  it  to  take  deep  root,  and  it  filled 
the  land.  The  hills  were  covered  with  the  shadow  of  it : 
and  the  boughs  thereof  were  like  the  goodly  cedars.  She 
sent  out  her  boughs  into  the  sea,  and  her  branches  into 


Figures.)  perspicuity,  he,  29S 

the  river.  Why  hast  thou  broken  down  her  hedges,  so 
that  all  they  which  pass  by  the  way  do  pluck  her  ?  The 
boar  out  of  the  wood  doth  waste  it,  and  the  v/ild  beasts  of 
the  field  doth  devour  it.  Return,  we  beseech  thee,  O  God 
of  Hosts,  look  down  from  heaven,  and  behold,  and  visit 
this  vine  !*     See  also  Ezekiel,  xvii.  22 — 24. 

The  first  and  principal  requisite  in  the  conduct  of  an 
allegory,  is,  t/iat  the  Jigurative  and  the  literal  meaning  he 
not  mixed  inconsistently  together.  Indeed,  all  the  rules 
that  were  given  for  metaphors,  may  also  be  applied  to  al- 
legories, on  account  of  the  affinity  they  bear  to  each  other. 
The  only  material  diiference  between  them,  besides  the, 
one  being  short  and  the  other  being  prolonged,  is,  that  a 
metaphor  always  explains  itself  by  the  words  that  are  con- 
nected with  it  in  their  proper  and  natural  meaning  :  as, 
when  I  say,  *  Achilles  was  a  lion  ;*  '  An  able  minister  is 
the  pillar  of  the  state  ;'  the  '  lion'  and  the  '  pillar'  are  suf- 
ficiently interpreted  by  the  mention  of  '  Achilles'  and  the 
*  minister,'  which  I  join  to  them  ;  but  an  allegory  is,  or 
may  be,  allowed  to  stand  less  connected  with  the  literal 
meaning,  the  interpretation  not  being  so  directly  pointed 
out,  but  left  to  our  own  reflection. 

Allegory  was  a  favourite  method  of  delivering  instruc- 
tion in  ancient  times  ;  for  what  we  call  fables  or  parables, 
are  no  other  than  allegories.  By  words  and  actions  attri- 
buted to  beasts  or  inanimate  objects,  the  dispositions  of 
men  were  figured  ;  and  what  we  call  the  moral,  is  the  un- 
figured  sense  or  meaning  of  the  allegory. 

A  Comparison  or  simile^  is,  when  the  resemblance  be- 
tween two  objects  is  expressed  inform^  and  generally  pur- 
sued more  fally  than  the  nature  of  a  metaphor  admits  :  as 
when  it  is  said,  *  The  actions  of  princes  are  like  those 
great  rivers,  the  course  of  which  every  one  beholds,  but 
their  springs  have  been  seen  by  few.'  *  As  the  mountains 
are  round  about  Jerusalem,  so  the  Lord  is  round  about  his 
people.*  *  Behold,  how  good  and  how  pleasant  it  is  for 
brethren  to  dwell  together  in  unity  !  It  is  like  the  pre- 
cious ointment.  Sec.  and  as  the  dew  that  descended  upon 
the  mountains  of  Zion.' 

The  advantage  of  this  figure  arises  from  the  illustration  ? 
Avhich  the  simile  employed  gives  to  the  principal  object  j; 
Aa2 


294  APPENDIX.  (Figures* 

from  the  clearer  view  which  it  presents ;  or  the  more 
strong  impression  wl.ich  it  stamps  upon  the  mind.  Ob- 
serve the  effect  of  it  in  the  following  instance.  The  au- 
thor is  explain] rg  the  distinction  between  the  powers  of 
sense  and  imai^ination  in  the  human  mind.  *  As  wax,* 
says  he,  *  would  not  be  adequate  to  the  purpose  of  signa- 
ture, if  it  had  not  the  power  to  retain  as  well  as  to  receive 
the  impression,  the  same  holds  of  the  soul  with  respect  to 
sense  and  imagination.  Sense  is  its  receptive  power  ; 
imagination,  its  retentive.  Plad  it  sense  without  imagina- 
tion, it  would  not  be  as  wax,  but  as  water,  where,  though 
all  impressions  are  instantly  made,  yet  as  soon  as  they  are 
made,  they  are  instantly  lost.* 

In  comparisons  of  this  nature,  the  understanding  is  con- 
cerned much  more  than  the  fancy  :  and  therefore  the  rules 
to  be  observed,  with  respect  to  them,  are,  that  they  be 
clear,  and  that  they  be  useful ;  that  they  tend  to  render 
our  conception  of  the  principal  object  more  distinct ;  and 
that  they  do  not  lead  our  view  aside,  and  bewilder  it  with 
any  false  light.  We  should  always  remember  that  similes 
a?'e  not  arguments.  However  apt  they  may  be,  they  do 
no  more  than  explain  the  writer's  sentiments ;  they  do 
not  prove  them  to  be  founded  on  truth. 

Comparisons  ought  not  to  be  founded  on  likenesses 
which  are  too  faint  and  remote.  For  these,  in  place  of 
assisting,  strain  the  mind  to  comprehend  them,  and 
throw  no  light  upon  the  subject.  It  is  also  to  be  observ- 
ed, that  a  comparison  which,  in  the  principal  circum- 
stances, carries  a  sufficiently  near  resemblance,  may  be- 
come unnatural  and  obscure,  if  pushed  too  far.  Nothing 
is  more  opposite  to  the  design  of  this  figure,  than  to  hunf 
after  a  great  number  of  coincidences  in  minute  points^ 
merely  to  show  how  far  the  writer's  ingenuity  can  stretch 
the  resemblance. 

A  Metonymy  is  founded  on  the  several  relations,  of 
cause  and  effect,  container  and  contained,  sign  and  thing 
signified.  When  we  say  :  *  They  read  Milton,'  the  cause 
is  put  instead  of  the  effect ;  meaning  *■  Milton's  works.' 
On  the  otl^er  hajid,  when  it  is  said,  '  Gray  hairs  should  be 
respected,'  v>^e  put  the  effect  for  the  cause,  meaning  by 
•^gray  hairs,'   old  age,    '  The  kettle  boils,'   is  a  phrase^ 


Figures.)  perspicuity,  8cc.^  29^ 

where  the  name  of  the  container  is  substituted  for  that  of 
the  thing  contained.  *  To  assume  the  sceptre*  is  a  com- 
mon expression  for  entering  on  royal  authority  j  the  sign 
being  put  for  the  thing  signified. 

When  the  whole  is  put  for  a  part,  or  a  part  for  the 
whole  ;  a  genus  for  a  species,  or  a  species  for  a  genus ;  in 
general,  when  any  thing  less,  or  any  thing  more,  is  put 
for  the  precise  object  meant ;  the  figure  is  then  called  a 
Synecdoche  or  Comfirehension.  It  is  very  common,  for 
instanc%,  to  describe  a  whole  object  by  some  remarkable 
part  of  it:  as  when  we  say  ;  *  A  fleet  of  twenty  sail^*  in 
the  place  of  *  shifts  ;*  when  we  use  the  *  head*  for  the 
^fier$on*  the  '  waves*  for  the  *  sea'  In  like  manner,  an 
attribute  may  be  put  for  a  subject :  as,  *  Youth'  for  the 
*  young,*  the  *  deep*  for  the  *  sea  ;*  and  sometimes  a  sub- 
ject for  its  attribute. 

Personijication  or  Prosofiofioeia^  is  that  figure  by  which 
we  attribute  life  and  action  to  inanimate  objects.  The 
use  of  this  figure  is  very  natural  and  extensive  :  there  is 
a  wonderful  proneness  in  human  nature,  under  emotion, 
to  animate  all  objects.  When  we  say,  '  the  ground  thirsts 
for  rain,*  or,  '  the  earth  smiles  with  plenty  ;*  when  we 
speak  of  *  ambition's  being  restless,*  or,  *  a  disease's  be- 
ing deceitful;*  such  expressions  show  the  facility  with 
which  the  mind  can  accommodate  the  properties  of  living 
creatures  to  things  that  are  inanimate,  or  to  abstract  con- 
ceptions of  its  own  forming.  The  following  are  striking 
examples  from  the  Scriptures  :  *  When  Israel  went  out 
of  Egypt,  the  house  of  Judah  from  a  people  of  strange 
language  ;  the  sea  saw  it,  and  fled  :  Jordan  was  driven 
back  1  The  mountains  skipped  like  rams,  and  the  little 
hills  like  lambs.  What  ailed  thee,  O  thou  sea  I  that  thou 
fieddest  ?  Thou  Jordan,  that  thou  wast  driven  back  ?  Ye 
mountcuns,  that  ye  skipped  like  rams  ;  and  ye  little  hills, 
like  lambs  ?  Tremble,  thou  earth,  at  the  presence  of  the- 
Lord,  at  the  presence  of  the  God  of  Jacob.' 

*  The  wilderness  and  the  solitary  place  shall  be  glad  for 
them :  and  the  desert  shall  rejoice  and  blossom  as  the  rose.' 

Milton  thus  describes  the  immediate  effects  of  eating 
the  forbidden  fruit.    Terror  produces  the  figure. 


296  APPENDIX.  (Figures, 

Earth  trembled  from  her  entrails,  as  again 
In  pangs,  and  nature  gave  a  second  groan ; 
Sky  low'rM,  and,  mutt'ring  thunder,  some  sad  drops 
Wept,  at  completing  of  the  mortal  sin. 
The  impatience  of  Adam  to  know  his  origin,  is  sup- 
posed to  prompt  the  personification  of  all  the  objects  he 
b'feheld,  in  order  to  procure  information. 
Thou  sun,  said  I,  fair  light  ! 
And  thou  enlightened  earth,  so  fresh  and  gay  ! 
Ye  hills  and  dales,  ye  rivers,  woods,  and  plains, 
And  ye  that  live  and  move,  fair  creatures,  tell, 
Tell,  if  you  saw,  how  came  I  thus,  how  here  ? 
We  shall  give  a  remarkably  fine  example  of  this  figure> 
from   bishop  Sherlock.     He  has   beautifully  personified 
natural  religion  :  and  we  may  perceive,  in  the  personifica- 
tion, the  spirit  and  grace  which  the  figure,  when  well  con- 
ducted, bestows  on  discourse.     The  author  is  comparing 
together   our  Saviour  and  Mahomet.     '  Go  (says  he)  to 
your  Natural  Religion  :  lay  before  her  Mahomet,  and  his 
disciples,  arrayed  in  armour  and  blood,  riding  in  triumph 
over  the  spoils  of  thousands  who  fell  by  his   victorious 
sword.     Show  her  the  cities  which  he  set  in  flames,  the 
countries  which  he  ravaged   and  destroyed,  and   the  mis- 
erable distress  of  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth.     When 
she  has  viewed  him  in  this  scene,  carry  her  into  his  retire- 
ment ;  show  her  the  Prophet's  chamber  ;  his  concubmes 
and  his  wives  ;  and  let  her  hear  him  allege  revelation,, 
and  a  Divine  command,  to  justify  his  adultery  and  lust.' 

*  When  she  is  tired  with  this  prospect,  then  show  her 
the  blessed  Jesus,  humble  and  meek,  doing  good  to  all 
the  sons  of  men.  Let  her  see  him  in  his  most  retired 
privacies  ;  let  her  follow  him  to  the  mount,  and  hear  his 
devotions  and  supplications  to  God.  Carry  her  to  his  ta- 
ble, to  view  his  poor  fare  ;  and  hear  his  heavenly  dis- 
course. Let  her  attend  him  to  the  tribunal,  and  consider 
the  patience  with  which  he  endured  the  scoffs  and  re- 
proaches of  his  enemies.  Lead  her  to  his  cross  ;  let  her 
view  him  in  the  agony  of  death,  and  hear  his  last  prayer 
for  his  persecutors  ;  '  Father  forgive  them,  for  they  know 
not  what  they  do.' — When  Natural  Religion  has  thus 
viewed  both,  ask  her,  which  is  the  Prophet  of  God  ?-^- 


Figures.)  perspicuity,  &c.  297 

But  her  answer  we  have  ah^eady  had,  when  she  saw  part 
of  this  scene,  through  the  eyes  of  the  Centurion,  who  at- 
tended at  the  cross.  By  him  she  spoke,  and  said,  *  Truly 
this  man  was  the  Son  of  God.'  This  is  more  than  ele- 
gant ;  it  is  truly  sublime.  The  whole  passage  is  animat- 
ed ;  and  the  Figure  rises  at  the  conclusion,  when  Natural 
Religion,  who,  before,  was  only  a  spectator,  is  introduced 
as  speaking  by  the  Centurion's  voice. 

This  figure  of  speech  is  sometimes  very  improperly 
and  extravagantly  applied.  A  capital  error  in  personifying 
objects,  is,  to  deck  them  with  fantastic  and  trifling  cir- 
cumstances. A  practice  of  this  sort  dissolves  the  potent 
charm,  which  enchants  and  deceives  the  reader  ;  and 
either  leaves  him  dissatisfied,  or  excites,  perhaps,  his 
risibility.  Another  error,  frequent  in  descriptive  person- 
ifications, consists  in  introducing  them,  when  the  subject 
of  discussion  is  destitute  of  dignity,  and  the  reader  is  not 
prepared  to  relish  them.  One  can  scarcely  peruse,  with 
composure,  the  following  use  of  this  figure.  It  is  the 
language  of  our  elegant  poet  Thomson,  who  thus  per- 
sonifies and  connects  the  bodily  appetites,  and  their  grati- 
fications. 

Then  sated  Huncrer  bids  his  brother  Thirst 
Produce  the  miglity  bowl  : 
Nor  wanting  is  the  brown  October,  drawn 
Mature  and  perfect,  from  his  dark  retreat 
Of  thirty  years  :  and  now  his  honest  front 
Flames  in  the  light  refulgent. 
It  is  to  be  remarked,   concerning  this  figure,  and  short 
metaphors  and  similes,   which  also  have  been  allowed  to 
be  the  proper  language  of  high  passion,  that  they  are  the 
proper  expression  oi  it,  only  on  those  occasions  when  it  is 
so  far  moderated  as  to   admit  of  words.     The  first  and 
highest  transports  seem  to  overwhelm  the  mind,  and  are 
denoted  by  dlence  or  groans :  next  succeeds  the  violent 
and  passionate  language,  of  which  these    figures   consti- 
tute a  great  part.     Such  agitation,  however,  cannot  long 
continue  ;  the  passions  having  spent  their  force,  the  mind 
soon  subsides  into  that  exhausted  and  dispirited  state,  in 
which  all  figures  are  improper. 


298  APPENDIX.  (Figures. 

Aliostrolihe  is  a  turning  off  from  the  regular  course  of 
the  subject,  to  address  some  person  or  thing  ;  as,  *  Death 
is  swallowed  up  in  victory.  O  death  !  where  is  thy  sting  ? 
O  grave  !  where  is  thy  victory  ?' 

The  following  is  an  instance  of  personification  and  apo- 
strophe united  :  *  O  thou  sword  of  the  Lord  I  how  long 
will  it  be  ere  thou  be  quiet  ?  put  thyself  up  into  thy  scab- 
bard, rest  and  be  still  !  How  can  it  be  quiet,  seeing  the 
Lord  hath  given  it  a  charge  against  Askelon,  and  against 
the  sea-shore  ?  there  hath  he  appointed  it.'  See  also  an 
extraordinary  example  of  these  figures,  in  the  14th  chap- 
ter of  Isaiah,  from  the  4th  to  the  19th  verse,  where  the 
prophet  describes  the  fall  of  the  Assyrian  empire. 

A  principal  error,  in  the  use  of  the  Apostrophe,  is,  to 
deck  the  object  addressed  with  affected  ornaments  ;  by 
which  authors  relinquish  the  expression  of  passion,  and 
substitute  for  it  the  language  of  fancy. 

Another  frequent  error  is,  to  extend  this  figure  to  too 
great  length.  The  language  of  violent  passion  is  always 
concise,  and  often  abrupt.  It  passes  suddenly  from  one 
object  to  another.  It  often  glances  at  a  thought,  starts 
from  it,  and  leaves  it  unfinished.  The  succession  of  ideas 
is  irregular,  and  connected  by  distant  and  uncommon  re- 
lations. On  all  these  accounts,  nothing  is  more  unnatu- 
ral than  long  speeches,  uttered  by  persons  under  the  influ- 
ence of  strong  passions.  Yet  this  error  occurs  in  several 
poets  of  distinguished  reputation. 

The  next  figure  in  order,  is  Antithesis.  Comparison  is 
founded  on  the  resemblance  ;  antithesis,  on  the  contrast 
or  opposition  of  two  objects.  Contrast  has  always  the  ef- 
fect, to  make  each  of  the  contrasted  objects  appear  in  the 
stronger  light.  White,  for  instance,  never  appears  so 
bright  as  when  it  is  opposed  to  black  ;  and  when  both  are 
viewed  together.  An  author,  in  his  defence  of  a  friend 
against  the  charge  of  murder,  expresses  himself  thus  : 
*  Can  you  believe  that  the  person  whom  he  scrupled  to 
slay,  when  he  might  have  done  so  with  full  justice,  in  a 
convenient  place,  at  a  proper  time,  with  secure  impunity  ; 
he  made  no  scruple  to  murder  against  justice,  in  an  un- 
favourable place,  at  an  unseasonable  time,  and  at  the  risk 
of  capital  condemnation  ?* 


Figures.)  perspicuity,  Sec.  299 

The  following  examples  further  illustrate  this  fjgure. 

Tho'  deep,  yet  clear  ;  tho'  gentle,  yet  not  dull ; 

Strong,  without  rage  ;  without  o*erflowing,  full. 
'  If  you  wish  to  enrich  a  person,  study  not  to  increase 
his  stores,  but  to  diminish  his  desires.* 

*  If  you  regulate  your  desires  according  to  the  standard 
of  nature,  you  will  never  be  poor  ;  if  according  to  the 
standard  of  opinion,  you  will  never  be  rich.' 

A  maxim,  or  moral  saying,  very  properly  receives  the 
form  of  the  two  last  examples  ;  both  because  it  is  suppos- 
ed to  be  the  fruit  of  meditation,  and  because  it  is  design- 
ed to  be  engraven  on  the  memory,  which  recalls  it  more 
easily  by  the  help  of  such  contrasted  expressions.  But 
where  such  sentences  frequently  succeed  each  other ; 
where  this  becomes  an  author's  favourite  and  prevailing 
manner  of  expressing  himself,  his  style  appears  too  much 
studied  and  laboured  ;  it  gives  us  the  impression  of  an  au- 
thor attending  more  to  his  manner  of  saying  things,  than 
to  the  things  themselves. 

The  following  is  a  beautiful  example  of  Antithesis.  *  If 
Cato  may  be  censured,  severely  indeed,  but  justly,  for 
abandoning  the  cause  of  liberty,  which  he  would  not,  how- 
ever, survive  ;  what  shall  we  say  of  those,  who  embrace 
it  faintly,  pursue  it  irresolutely,  grow  tired  of  it  when  they 
have  much  to  hope,  and  give  it  up  when  they  have  nothing 
to  fear  ?' — The  capital  antithesis  of  this  sentence,  is  in- 
stituted between  the  zeal  of  Cato  for  liberty,  and  the  in- 
difference of  some  others  of  her  patrons.  But,  besides  the 
leading  antithesis,  there  are  two  subordinate  ones,  in  the 
latter  member  :  '  Grow  tired  of  it,  when  they  have  much 
to  hope  ;  and  give  it  up,  when  they  have  nothing  to  fear.' 

The  eloquent  Burke  has  exhibited  a  fine  instance  of 
this  figure,  in  his  eulogium  of  the  philanthropic  Howard. 

*  He  has  visited  all  Europe — not  to  survey  the  sumptu- 
|ousness  of  palaces,  or  the  stateliness  of  temples  ;  not  to 

make  accurate  measurements  of  the  remains  of  ancient 
grandeur,  nor  to  form  a  scale  of  the  curiosity  of  modern 
art ;  nor  to  collect  medals,  or  collate  manuscripts — but  to 
dive  into  the  depths  of  dungeons  ;  to  plunge  into  the  in- 
fection of  hospitals  ;  to  survey  the  mansions  of  sorrow  and 
jt)ain  ;  to  take  the  gage  and  dimensions  of  misery,  depres- 


^ 


500  APPENDIX.  (Figures. 

sion,  and  contempt ;  to  remember  the  forgotten,  to  attend 
to  the  neglected,  to  visit  the  forsaken,  and  compare  and 
collate  the  distresses  of  all  men,  in  all  countries.* 

The  next  figure  concerning  which  we  are  to  treat,  is 
called  Hyfierbole  or  Exaggeration,  It  consists  in  magni- 
fying an  object  beyond  its  natural  bounds.  In  all  languages, 
even  in  common  conversation,  hyperbolical  expressions 
very  frequently  occur :  as  swift  as  the  wind  ;  as  white  as 
the  snow  ;  and  the  like  ;  and  the  common  forms  of  com- 
pliment ;  are  almost  all  of  them  extravagant  hyperboles, 
if  any  thing  be  remarkably  good  or  great  in  its  kind,  we 
are  instantly  ready  to  add  to  it  some  exaggerating  epi- 
thet, and  to  make  it  the  greatest  or  best  we  ever  saw. 
The  imagination  has  always  a  tendency  to  gratify  itself,  by 
magnifying  its  present  object,  and  carrying  it  to  excess. — 
More  or  less  of  this  hyperbolical  turn  will  prevail  in  lan- 
guage, according  to  the  liveliness  of  imagination  among 
the  people  wh©  speak  it.  Hence  young  people  deal  much 
in  hyperboles.  Hence  the  language  of  the  Orientals  was 
far  more  hyperbolical,  than  that  of  tlie  Europeans,  who 
are  of  more  phlegmatic,  or,  perhaps  we  may  say,  of  more 
correct  imagination.  Hence,  among  all  writers  in  early 
times,  and  in  the  rude  periods  of  society,  we  may  expect 
this  figure  to  abound.  Greater  experience,  and  more 
cultivated  society,  abate  the  warmth  of  imagination,  and 
chasten  the  manner  of  expression. 

Hyperboles  are  of  two  kinds  ;  either  such  as  are  em- 
ployed  in  description,  or  such  as  are   suggested  by  the 
warmth  of  passion.     All  passions  without  exception,  love, 
terror,  amazement,  indignation,  and  even  grief,  throw  the 
mind  into  confusion,  aggravate  their  object,  and  of  course 
prompt  a  hyperbolical  style.     Hence  the  following  senti- 
ments of  Satan  in  Milton,  as  strongly  as  they  are  describ- 
ed, contain  nothing  but  what  is  natural  and  proper  ;  exhi- 
biting the  picture  of  a  mind  agitated  with  rage  and  despair. 
Me,  miserable  !  which  way  shall  I  fly 
Infinite  wrath,  and  infinite  despair  ? 
Which  way  1  fly  is  Hell,  myself  >Am  Hell  ; 
And  in  the  lowest  depth,  a  lower  deep, 
Still  threatening  to  devour  me,  opens  wide, 
To  which  the  Hell  \  sufler  seems  a  Heaven. 


Figures.)  PERSPictriTY,  &c.  301 

The  fear  of  an  enemy  augments  the  conceptions  of  the 
size  of  their  leader.  *  I  saw  their  chief,*  says  the  scout  of 
Ossian,  '  tall  as  a  rock  of  ice  ;  his  spear,  the  blasted  fir ; 
his  shield,  the  rising  moon  :  he  sat  on  the  shore,  like  a 
cloud  of  mist  on  the  hill.* 

The  errors  frequent  in  the  use  of  Hyperboles,  arise 
either  from  overstraining,  or  introducing  them  on  unsuit- 
able occasions.  Dryden,  in  his  poem  on  the  Restoration 
of  king  Charles  the  Second,  compliments  that  monarch, 
at  the  expense  of  the  sun  himself. 

That  star  at  your  birth  shone  out  so  bright, 
It  stain'd  the  duller  sun*s  meridian  light. 
This  is  indeed  mere  bombast.  It  is  difficult  to  ascer- 
tain, by  any  precise  rule,  the  proper  measure  and  bounda- 
ry of  this  figure.  Good  sense  and  just  taste  must  deter- 
mine the  point,  beyond  which,  if  we  pass,  we  become  ex- 
travagant. 

Vision  is  another  figure  of  speech,  which  is  proper  only 
in  animated  and  warm  composition.  It  is  produced  when, 
instead  of  relating  something  that  is  past,  we  use  the  pre- 
sent tense,  and  describe  it  as  actually  passing  before  our 
eyes.  Thus  Cicero,  in  his  fourth  oration  against  Catiline : 
'  I  seem  to  myself  to  behold  this  city,  the  ornament  of  the 
earth,  and  the  capital  of  all  nations,  suddenly  involved  in 
one  conflagration.  I  see  before  me  the  slaughtered  heaps 
of  citizens,  lying  unburied  in  the  midst  of  their  ruined 
country.  The  furious  countenance  of  Cethegus  rises  to 
»y  view,  while  with  a  savage  joy,  he  is  triumphing  in 
rour  miseries.* 

This  manner  of  description  supposes  a  sort  of  enthu- 
iasm,  which  carries  the  person  who  describes,  in  some 
heasure  out  of  himself ;  and,  when  well  executed,  must 
iqeds,  by  the  force  of  sympathy,  impress  the  reader  or 
learer  very  strongly.  But,  in  order  to  a  successful  execu- 
ion,  it  requires  an  vmcommonly  warm  imagination,  and 
mch  a  happy  selection  of  circumstances,  as  shall  make  us 
'think  we  see  before  our  eyes  the  scene  that  is  described. 
Intei-rogation.  The  unfigured,  literal  use  of  interrogu- 
^tion,  is  to  ask  a  question  :  but  when  men  are  strongly 
^panoved,  whatever  they  would  affirm  or  deny,  with  great 
■|.earncstness,  they  naturally  put  in  the  form  of  a  question, 
B  ii  b 

b 


302  APPENDIX.  (Figures. 

expressing  thereby  the  strongest  confidence  of  the  truth 
of  their  own  sentiment,  and  appealing  to  their  hearers  for 
the  impossibility  of  the  contrary.  Thus  Balaam  express- 
ed himself  to  Balak.  *  The  Lord  is  not  a  man  that  he 
should  lie,  neither  the  son  of  man  that  he  should  repent. 
Hath  he  said  it .''  and  shall  he  not  do  it  ?  Hath  he  spoken 
it  ?  and  shall  he  not  make  it  good  ? 

Interrogation  gives  life  and  spirit  to  discourse.  We 
see  this  in  the  animated,  introductory  speech  of  Cicero 
against  Catiline  :  *  How  long  will  you,  Catiline,  abuse  our 
patience  ?  Do  you  not  perceive  that  your  designs  are  dis- 
covered ?' — He  might  indeed  have  said  ;  <  You  abuse  our 
patience  ,a  long  while.  You  must  be  sensible,  that  your 
designs  ai^  discovered.'  But  it  is  easy  to  perceive,  how 
much  this  latter  mode  of  expression,  falls  short  of  the 
force  and  vehemence  of  the  former. 

Exclamations  are  the  effect  of  strong  emotions  of  the 
mind  ;  such  as,  surprise,  admiration,  joy,  grief,  and  the 
like.  *  Wo  is  me  that  I  sojourn  in  Mesech,  that  I  dwell 
in  the  tents  of  Kedar  1'     Psalms. 

'  O  that  my  head  were  waters,  and  mine  eyes  a  foun- 
tain of  tears,  that  I  might  weep  day  and  night,  for  the 
slain  of  the  daughter  of  my  people  !  O  that  I  had  in  the 
wilderness  a  lodging-place  of  way-faring  men  !'    Jeremiah. 

Though  Interrogations  may  be  introduced  into  close  and 
earnest  reasoning,  exclamations  belong  only  to  strong 
emotions  of  the  mind.  When  judiciously  employed,  they 
agitate  the  hearer  or  the  reader  with  similar  passions  :  but 
it  is  extremely  improper,  and  sometimes  ridiculous,  to 
use  them  on  trivial  occasions,  and  on  mean  or  low  sub- 
jects. The  unexperienced  writer  often  attempts  to  ele- 
vate his  language,  by  the  copious  display  of  this  figure  : 
but  he  rarely  or  never  succeeds.  He  frequently  renders 
his  composition  frigid  to  excess,  or  absolutely  ridiculous, 
by  calling  on  us  to  enter  into  his  transports,  when  nothing 
is  said  or  done  to  demand  emotion. 

Irony  is  when  a  person  speaks  contrary  to  his  thoughts, 
not  witti  a  view  to  deceive,  but  to  add  force  to  his  observa- 
tions. Persons  may  be  reproved  for  their  negligence,  by 
sr.ying  ;  '  You  have  taken  great  care  indeed.'  Cicero  says 
of  the  person  against  whom  he  wiis  pleatliag  ;  '  We  have 


Figures.)  perspicuity,  &c.  303 

great  reason  to  believe  that  the  modest  man  would  not 
ask  him  for  his  debt,  when  he  pursues  his  life/ 

Ironical  exhortation  is  a  very  agreeable  kind  of  figure  ; 
which,  after  having  set  the  inconveniences  of  a  thing,  in 
the  clearest  light,  concludes  with  a  feigned  encourage- 
ment to  pursue  it.  Such  is  that  of  Horace,  when,  having 
beautifully  described  the  noise  and  tumults  of  Rome,  he 
adds  ironically  ; 

'  Go  now,  and  study  tuneful  vei-se  at  Rome.' 

The  subjects  of  Irony  are  vices  and  follies  of  all  kinds  : 
and  this  mode  of  exposing  them,  is  often  more  effectual 
than  serious  reasoning.  The  gravest  persons  have  not 
declined  the  use  of  this  figure,  on  proper  occasions.  The 
wise  and  virtuous  Socrates  made  great  use  of  it,  in  his 
endeavours  to  discountenance  vicious  and  foolish  pratices. 
Even  in  the  sacred. writings,  we  have  a  remarkable  in- 
stance of  it.  The  prophet  Elijah,  when  he  challenged  the 
priests  of  Baal  to  prove  the  truth  of  their  deity,  *  Mocked 
them,  and  said  :  '  Cry  aloud,  for  he  is  a  god  :  either  he  is 
talking,  or  he  is  pursuing,  or  he  is  on  a  journey,  or  per- 
adventure  he  sleepeth,  and  must  be  waked.' 

Exclamations  and  Irony  are  sometimes  united  :  as  in 
Cicero's  oration  forBalbus,  where  he  derides  his  accuser, 
by  saying  ;  <  O  excellent  interpreter  of  the  law  !  master  of 
antiquity  !  corrector  and  amender  of  our  constitution  !* 

The  last  figure  of  speech  that  we  shall  mention  is  what 
writers  call  yhnJiUJication  or  Climax.  It  consists  in  height- 
ening all  the  circumstances  of  an  object  or  action,  which 
we  desire  to  place  in  a  strong  light.  Cicero  gives  a  lively 
instance  of  this  figure,  when  he  says ;  '  It  is  a  crime  to 
put  a  Roman  citizen  in  bonds  ;  it  is  the  height  of  guilt  to 
scourge  him  ;  little  less  than  parricide  to  put  him  to  death  \ 
what  name  then  shall  I  give  to  the  act  of  crucifying  him  ?* 

Archbishop  Tillotson  uses  this  figure  very  happily,  to 
recommend  good  and  virtuous  actions  ;  ^  After  we  have 
practised  good  actions  a  while,  they  become  easy ;  and 
when  they  are  easy,  we  begin  to  take  pleasure  in  them  ; 
and  when  they  please  us,  we  do  them  frequently  ;  and  by 
frequency  of  acts,  a  thing  grows  into  a  habit ;  and  con- 
firmed habit  is  a  kind  of  second  nature  ;  and  so  far  as  any 
thing  is  natural,  so  far  it  is  necessary  ;  and  wc  can  hardly 


304  APPENDIX.  (Figures. 

do  othenvise  ;  nay,  we  do  it  many  times  when  we  do  not 
think  of  it.' 

We  shall  conclude  this  article  with  an  example  of  a 
beautiful  climax,  taken  from  the  charge  of  a  judge  to  the 
jury,  in  the  case  of  a  woman  accused  of  murdering  her 
own  child.  '  Gentlemen,  if  one  man  had  any  how  slain 
another  ;  if  an  adversary  had  killed  his  opposer,  or  a  wo- 
man occasioned  the  death  of  her  enemy  ;  even  these  cri- 
mhials  would  have  been  capitally  punished  by  the  Corne- 
lian law ;  but  if  this  guiltless  infant,  that  could  make  no 
enemy,  had  been  murdered  by  its  own  nurse,  what  punish- 
ment would  not  then  the  mother  have  demanded  ?  With 
what  cries  and  exclamations  would  she  have  stunned  your 
ears  !  What  shall  we  say  then,  when  a^  woman,  guilty  of 
homicide,  a  mother,  of  the  murder  of  her  innocent  child, 
hath  comprised  all  those  misdeeds  in  one  single  crime  ? 
a  crime,  in  its  own  nature,  detestable  ;  in  a  woman,  pro- 
digious ;  in  a  mother,  incredible  ;  and  perpetrated  against 
one  whose  age  called  for  compassion,  whose  near  rela- 
tion claimed  affection,  and  whose  innocence  deserved  the 
iii^^hcst  favour.* 

Wc  have  now  finishtd  what  was  proposed,  concerning 
Perspicuity  in  single  words  and  phrases,  and  the  accurate 
construction  of  sentences.  The  former  has  been  consider- 
ed under  the  heads  of  Purity,  Propriety,  and  Precision  ; 
and  the  latter,  under  those  of  Clearness,  Unity,  Strength, 
and  the  proper  use  of  Figurative  Language.  Though 
many  of  those  attentions  which  have  been  recommended, 
may  appear  minute,  yet  their  effect  upon  writing  and 
style,  is  much  greater  than  might,  at  first,  be  imagined. 
A  sentiment  which  is  expressed  in  accurate  language, 
and  in  a  period,  clearly,  neatly,  and  well  arranged,  always 
makes  a  stronger  impression  on  the  mind,  than  one  that 
is  expressed  inaccurately,  or  in  a  feeble  or  embarrassed 
m.anner.  Every  one  feels  this  upon  a  comparison  :  and 
if  the  effect  be  sensible  in  one  sentence,  how  much  more 
in  a  whole  discourse,  or  composition  that  is  made  up  of 
such  sentences  ? 

The  fundamental  rule  for  writing  with  accuracy,  and 
into  which  all  others  might  be  resolved,  undoubtedly  is, 
to  communicatey  m  correct  langua^e^  and  in  the  clearest  and 


Figures.)  PERSPicxaxY,  he.  305 

most  natural  order,  the  ideas  which  lue  mean  to  transfusz 
into  the  minds  of  others.  Such  a  selection  and  arrange- 
ment of  words,  as  do  most  justice  to  the  sense,  and  ex- 
press it  to  most  advantage,  make  an  agreeable  dnd  strong 
impression.  To  these  points  have  tended  all  the  rules 
which  have  been  given.  Did  we  always  think  clearly, 
and  were  we,  at  the  same  time,  fully  masters  of  the  lan- 
guage in  which  we  write,  there  would  be  occasion  for  few 
rules.  Our  sentences  would  then,  of  course,  acquire  all 
those  properties  of  clearness,  unity,  strength,  and  accura- 
cy, which  have  been  recommended.  For  we  iftay  rest 
assured,  that  whenever  we  express  ourselves  ill,  besides 
the  mismanagement  of  language,  there  is,  for  the  most 
part,  some  mistake  in  our  manner  of  conceiving  the  sub- 
ject. Embarrassed,  obscure,  and  feeble  sentences,  are 
generally,  if  not  always,  the  result  of  embarrassed,  obscure, 
and  feeble  thought.  Thought  and  expression  act  and  re- 
act upon  each  other.  The  understanding  and  language 
have  a  strict  connexion  ;  and  they  who  are  learnmg  to 
compose  and  arrange  their  sentences  with  accuracy  and 
order,  are  learning,  at  the  same  time,  to  think  with  accu- 
racy and  order  ;  a  consideration  which  alone  will  recom- 
pense the  student,  for  his  attention  to  this  branch  of  lite- 
rature. 


Bb2 


ADDRESS  TO  YOUNG  STUDENTS. 


The  Compiler  of  these  Elements  of  the  English  lan- 
guage, hopes  it  will  not  be  deemed  inconsistent  with  the 
nature  and  design  of  his  work,  to  make  a  short  address  to 
the  young  persons  engaged  in  the  study  of  it,  respecting 
their  future  walks  in  the  paths  of  literature,  and  the  chief 
purpose  to  which  they  should  apply  their  acquisitions. 

Informing  this  Grammar,  and  the  volume  of  Illustra- 
tions connected  with  it,  the  author  was  influenced  by  a  de- 
sire to  facilitate  your  progress  in  learning,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  to  impress  on  your  minds  principles  of  piety 
and  virtue.  He  wished  also,  to  assist,  in  some  degree, 
the  labours  of  those  who  are  cultivating  your  understand- 
ings, and  providing  for  you  a  fund  of  rational  and  useful 
employment ;  c.n  employment  calculated  to  exclude  those 
frivolous  pursuits,  and  that  love  of  ease  and  sensual  plea- 
sure, which  enfeeble  and  corrupt  the  minds  of  many  in- 
co.'isic^crate  youth,  and  render  them  useless  to  society. 

Without  your  own  best  exertions,  the  concern  of  others 
for  your  welfare,  will  be  of  little  avail :  with  them,  you 
may  fuirly  promise  yourselves  success.  The  writer  of  this 
address,  therefore,  recommends  to  you,  an  earnest  co-ope- 
ration v/ith  the  endeavours  of  your  friends  to  promote  your 
improvement  and  happiness.  This  co-operation,  whilst  it 
secures  your  own  progress,  will  afford  you  the  heart-felt 
satisfaction,  of  knowing  that  you  are  cherishing  the  hopes, 
and  augmenting  the  pleasures,  of  those  with  whom  you 
are  connected  by  the  most  endearing  ties.  He  recom- 
mends to  you  also,  serious  and  elevated  views  of  the  stu- 
dies in  which  you  may  be  engaged.  Whatever  may  be 
vour  attainments,  never  allow  yourselves  to  rest  satisfied 
with  mere  literary  acquisitions,  nor  with  a  selfish  or  con- 
tracted application  of  them..  When  they  advance  only  the 
interests  of  this  stage  -of  being,  and  look  not  beyond  the 
present  transient  scene,  their  influence  is  circumscribed 
^viliuii  a  very  narrow  sphere*     The  great  business  of  this 


ADDRESS  TO  YOUNG   STUDENTS.  307 

life  is  to  prepare,  and  qualify  us,  for  the  enjoyment  of  a 
better,  by  cultivating  a  pure  and  humble  state  of  mind, 
and  cherishing  habits  of  piety  towards  God,  and  benevo- 
lence to  men.  Eveiy  thing  that  promotes  or  retards  this 
important  work,  is  of  great  moment  to  you,  and  claims 
your  first  and  most  serious  attention. 

If,  then,  the  cultivation  of  letters,  and  an  advancement 
in  knowledge,  are  found  to  strengthen  and  enlarge  your 
minds,  to  purify  and  exalt  your  pleasures,  and  to  dispose 
you  to  pious  and  virtuous  sentiments  and  conduct,  they 
produce  excellent  effects  ;  which,  with  your  best  endea- 
vours to  improve  them,  and  the  Divine  blessing  superad- 
ded, will  not  fail  to  render  you,  not  only  wise  and  good 
yourselves,  but  also  the  happy  instruments  of  diffusing 
wisdom,  religion,  and  goodness  around  you.  Thus  im- 
proved, your  acquisitions  become  handmaids  to  virtue  ; 
and  they  may  eventually  serve  to  increase  the  rewards, 
which  the  Supreme  Being  has  promised  to  faithful  and 
"Well-directed  exertions,  for  the  promotion  of  truth  and 
goodness  amongst  men. 

But  if  you  counteract  the  hopes  of  your  friends,  and  the 
tendency  of  these  attainments  ;  if  you  grow  vain  of  your 
real  or  imaginary  distinctions,  and  regard  with  contempt, 
the  virtuous,  unlettered  mind  ;  if  you  suffer  yourselves  to 
be  absorbed  in  over-curious  or  trifling  speculations ;  if 
your  heart  and  principles  be  debased  and  poisoned,  by  the 
influence  of  corrupting  and  pernicious  books,  for  which 
no  elegance  of  composition  can  make  amends  ;  if  you 
spend  so  much  of  your  time  in  literary  engagements,  as  to 
make  them  interfere  with  higher  occupations,  and  lead 
you  to  forget,  that  pious  and  benevolent  action  is  the  great 
end  of  your  being  :  if  such  be  the  unhappy  misapplication 
of  your  acquisitions  and  advantages — instead  of  becoming 
a  blessing  to  you,  they  will  prove  the  occasion  of  greater 
condemnation  ;  and,  in  the  hour  of  serious  thought,  they 
may  excite  the  painful  refleciions — thcit  it  would  have  been 
better  for  you,  to  have  remained  illiterate  and  unaspiring : 
to  have  been  confined  to  the  humblest  walks  of  life  ;  and 
to  have  been  even  hewers  of  wood  and  drawers  of  water 
all  your  days. 


508         ADDRESS  TO  YOUNG   STUDENTS. 

Contemplating  the  dangers  to  which  you  are  exposed,  and 
the  sorrows  and  dishonour  which  accompany  talents  mis- 
applied, and  a  course  of  indolence  and  folly,  may  you  exert 
your  utmost  endeavours  to  avoid  them  !  Seriously  reflect- 
ing on  the  great  end  for  which  you  were  brought  into  ex- 
istence ;  on  the  bright  and  encouraging  examples  of  many 
excellent  young  persons  ;  and  on  the  mournful  deviations 
of  others,  who  once  were  promising  ;  may  you  be  so  wise 
as  to  choose  and  follow  that  path,  which  leads  to  honour, 
usefulness,  and  true  enjoyment !  This  is  the  miorning  of 
your  life,  in  whi6h  pursuit  is  ardent,  and  obstacles  readily 
give  way  to  vigour  and  perseverance.  Embrace  this  fa- 
vourable season  ;  devote  yourselves  to  the  acquisition  of 
knowledge  and  virtue  ;  and  humbly  pray  to  God  that  he 
may  bless  your  labours.  Often  reflect  on  the  advantages 
you  possess,  and  on  the  source  from  whence  they  are  all 
derived.  A  lively  sense  of  the  privileges  and  blessings,  by 
which  you  have  been  distinguished,  will  induce  you  to 
render  to  your  heavenly  Father,  the  just  returns  of  grati- 
tude and  love  :  and  these  fruits  of  early  goodness  will  be 
regarded  by  him  as  acceptable  offerings,  and  secure  to  you 
his  favour  and  protection. 

Whatever  difficulties  and  discouragements  may  be 
found  in  resisting  the  allurements  of  vice,  you  may  be 
humbly  confident,  that  Divine  assistance  v/ill  be  afforded 
to  all  your  good  and  pious  resolutions  j  and  that  every  vir- 
tuous effort  will  have  a  correspondent  reward.  You  may 
rest  assured  too,  that  all  the  advantages  arising  from  vi- 
cious indulgences,  are  light  and  contemptible,  as  well  as 
exceedingly  transient,  compared  with  the  substantial  en- 
joyments, the  present  pleasures,  and  the  future  hopes, 
which  results  from  piety  and  virtue.  The  Holy  Scripi- 
tures  assure  us,  that  '  The  ways  of  wisdom  are  ways  of 
pleasantness,  and  that  all  her  paths  arc  peace  :'  '  that  re- 
ligion has  the  promise  of  the  life  that  now  is,  and  of  that 
which  is  to  come  :'  and  that  the  truly  good  man,  whatever 
may  be  the  condition  allotted  to  him  by  Divine  Providence, 
*  in  all  things  gives  thanks,  and  rejoices  even  in  tribula- 
tion.'— Some  of  these  sentiments  have  been  finely  illus- 
trated by  a  celebrated  poet.  The  author  of  this  address 
presents  the  illustration  to  you,  as  a  striking  and  beautiful 


ADDRESS   TO  YOUNG   STUDENTS.  309 

portrait  of  virtue  :  with  his  most  cordial  wishes,  that  your 
hearts  and  lives  may  correspond  to  it  ;  and  that  your  hap- 
piness here,  may  be  an  earnest  of  happiness  hereafter.* 

*  Know  then  this  truth  (enoug^i  for  man  to  know) 

Virtue  alone  is  happiness  below  : 

The  only  point  where  human  bliss  stands  still ; 

And  tastes  the  good,  without  the  fall  to  ill ; 

Where  only  merit  constant  pay  receives. 

Is  blessM  in  what  it  takes,  and  what  it  gives  ; 

The  joy  unequall'd,  if  its  end  it  gain, 

And  if  it  lose,  attended  with  no  pain  : ' 

Without  satiety,  though  e'er  so  bless'd  ; 

And  but  more  relish'd  as  the  more  distress'd  : 

The  broadest  mirth  unfeeling  folly  wears, 

Less  pleasing  far  than  virtue's  very  tears. 

Good,  from  each  object,  from  each  place  acquir'd  ; 

For  ever  exercis'd,  yet  never  tir'd  ; 

Never  ehited,  wliile  one  man's  oppress'd  ; 

Never  dejected,  while  another's  bless'd  : 

And  where  no  wants,  no  wishes  can  remain  ; 

Since  but  to  wish  more  virtue,  is  to  gain. — 

For  him  alone  hope  leads  from  goal  to  goal, 

And  opens  still,  and  opens  on  his  soul  ; 

Till  lengthen'd  on  to  fuith,  and  unconfin'd. 

It  pours  the  bliss  that  fills  up  all  the  mind.' 

Popii. 


THE   END. 


CONTENTS. 


PART  I. Orthograj'hy. 

CHAP.    1.     Of  lexers.  Page 
SECT.  1.     Of  the  nature  of  the  letters,  and  of^a 

perfect  alphabet.         -         .         -         .  9 

2.  General  observations  on  the  sounds  of 

the  letters.          -   '     -        -        -        -  16 

3.  The  nature  of  articulation  explained.     -  26 
CHAP.    2.     Of  syllables,  and  the  rules  for  arrang- 
ing them. 29 

€HAp.    S.     Of  words  in  general,  and  the  rules  for 

spelling  them.        -         -         -         -  31 

PART  II. -Etymology. 

CHAP.    1.     A  general  view  of  the  parts  of  speech.  S4 

CHAP.    2.     Of  the  articles.           -         -         -         -  37 

CiiAP.    3.     Of  substantives. 

SECT.  1.     Of  substantives  in  general.     -         .         -  40 

2.  Of  gender. 41 

3.  Of  number. 43 

4.  Of  case. 46 

CHAP.    4.     Of  adjectives. 

SECT.  1.     Of  the  nature  of  adjectives,  and  the  de- 

g-rees  of  comparison.            .         -         .  49 

2.     Remarks  on  the  subject  of  comparison.  51 

CHAP.    5.     Of  pronouns.     -         -         -         -         -  53 

SECT.  1.     Of  the  personal  pronouns.       -         -         -  ibid. 

2.  Of  the  relative  pronouns.        ...  55 

3.  Of  the  adjective  pronouns.      ...  57 
CHAP.    6.     Of  verbs. 

SECT.  1.     Of  the  nature  of  verbs  in  general.           -  62 

2.  Of  number  and  person.            ...  65 

3.  Of  moods  and  participles.       ...  66 

4.  Remarks  on  tJie  potential  mood.     -        -  69 

5.  Of  the  tenses.          .....  71 

6.  Th^  conj  ugation  of  the  auxiliary  verbs 

to  have  and  to  be.         -        -        -        *  78 

7.  The  auxiliary  verbs  conjugated  in  their 

simple  form;   with  observations  on 

their  peculiar  nature  and  force.          -  86 

8.  The  conjugation  of  regular  verbs.          -  90 
^.    Observations  on  passive  verbs.        .        -  98 


CONTENTS. 

Pag-e 

SECT.  10.    Of  irregula?  rerbs.         .        -        -        -  loi 
11.     Of  defective  verbs,  and  of  the  different 

ways  in  wliich  verbs  ai'e  conjugated.  106 

CHAP.    7.     Of  adverbs. 108 

CHAP.    8.     Of  prepositions.         -         -         -         -  111 
CHAP.    9.     Of  conjunctions.        -         -         -         -114 

CHAP.  10.     Of  interjections.        -         -         -         -  118 
CHAP.  11.     Of  derivation. 

SECT.  1.     Of  the  various  ways  in  which  words  are 

derived  from  one  another.          -        -  118 
2.     A  sketch  of  the  steps,  by  which  the  En- 
glish language  has  risen  to  its  pre- 
sent state  of  refinement.     -        -        -  122 

PART  III. Syntax.  124 

Of  the  syntax  of  the  article.         -         -         -         -  151 

Of  the  syntax  of  the  noun. 

Of  several  nouns  joined  by  copulatives.         -         -  129 

Of  nouns  connected  by  disjunctives.      ...  133 

Of  nouns  of  multitude. 133 

Of  one  noun  governing  another  in  the  possessive  case.  153 

Of  the  syntax  of  the  pronoun. 

Of  pronouns  agreeing  with  their  antecedents.       -  134 
Of  the  relative  being  nominative  to  the  verb.       -  139 
Of  the  relative  preceded  by  nominatives  of  differ- 
ent persons.        ---...-  140 

Of  the  syntax  of  the  adjective.        -         -         -         .  141 

Of  the  syntax  of  the  verb. 

Of  the  verb's  agreement  with  the  nominative  case.  126 

Of  verb's  active  requiring  the  objective  case.       -  159 

Of  one  verb  governmg  another  in  the  infinitive  mood,  162 

Of  verbs  related  in  point  of  time.           -         -         -  163 

Of  the  syntax  of  the  participle.     -         -         -         -  1^57 

Of  the  rules  respecting  adverbs. 

Of  the  position  of  adverbs.     -        -        -         -        .  I70 

Of  two  negatives. 172 

Of  the  syntax  of  prepositions.       -         -         -         -  173 

Of  the  syntax  of  conjunctions. 

Of  conjunctions  connecting  the  same  moods,  tenses, 

and  cases,           -         - I77 

Of  conjunctions  requiring  the  subjunctive  mood,  he.  178 

Of  the  syntax  of  interjections.      -         -         -         -  138 

Of  comparisons  by  the  conjunctien  t'ha7i  or  as.       -  188 

Directions  respecting  tlie  ellipsis.         -        -        -  189 


CONTENTS. 

Page 

General  rule  of  syntax. 193 

Directions  for  parsing.         -         -         -         -         -196 
PART  IV. -Prosody. 

CHAv.    1.     Of  pronunciation.      -         -         -         -  205 

SECT.  1.     Of  accent. 2Q5 

2.  Of  quantity.             .         -         -         -         -  210 

3.  Of  emphasis. 211 

4.  Of  pauses. 216 

5.  Of  tones.         -         -         -         -         -         -  219 

CHAP.    2.     Of  versification.         -         -         -         -  221 

Of  Punctuation. 
CHAP.  1.  Of  the  comma.  .  _  -  -  235 
CHAP.  2.  Of  the  semicoloa.  -  -  -  -  241 
CHAP.  3.  Of  the  colon.  .  -  -  -  -  242 
CHAP.  4.  Of  the  period,  .  -  .  -  243 
CHAP.  5.  Of  the  dash,  notes  of  interrogation,  ex- 
clamation, 8cc.        -         -         -         -  244 

APPENDIX. 

P.ULES     AJ5D     OBSERVATIONS     FOR      PROMOTING    PERSPI- 
CUITY  AND  ACCURACY  IN  WRITING. 

PART  I. 

Of  persjiicuity  and  accuracy  of  exfiression.^  with  resfiect  to 
single  ivords  and  phrases. 

CHAP.     I.     Of  purity. 250 

CHAP.     2.     or  propriety.              -         -         -         -  251 

CHAi'.    3.     Of  precision.              -         .         _         -  257 

PART  II. 

Of  /lersfiicuity  and  accuracy  of  expression^  nvith  respect  to 

the  construction  of  sentences. 

CHAP.     1.     Of  the  clearness  of  a  sentence.            -  262 

CHAP.    2.     Of  the  unity  of  a  sentence.          -         -  267 

CHAP.    3.     Of  the  strength  of  a  sentence.     -         -  271 

CHAP.    4.     Of  figures  of  speech.         .         -         -  288 

ADDRESS  TO  YOUNG  STUDEiS'TS.                 -             -             -  306 


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